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Supervisors have a primary responsibility to coach, train and develop their supervisees. By utilizing position descriptions and competency appraisal assessments combined with individualized goals for competence improvement, supervisors can effectively manage competence development.
Understanding the stages of counselor development will assist you in formulating realistic goals with your supervisees. Use the stages of counselor development to engage supervisees in discussions around where they see themselves and where you see them fitting into the developmental process of becoming counselors.
Stoltenberg & Delworth (1997) conceptualize counselor development in the context of eight specific domains of professional functioning and three overriding structures. Their model, the Integrated Developmental Model (IDM) describes counselor development as progressing through various stages, with gradually and incrementally increasing levels of complexity and sophistication. There are three levels. Level I therapist, Level II therapist and Level III therapist.
1. Intervention Skills
The first domain, intervention skills, encompasses the various types of clinical interventions that may be used in the course of providing psychotherapy to individuals, couples, families and groups. Competence in this domain includes integrating intervention skills with a variety of theories, linking preferred interventions to personal theory, following up on interventions, expanding on previous interventions, using a variety of interventions in each client system and demonstrating incremental improvement in learning and intervention skills development.
Each theoretical orientation has supporting interventions designed to facilitate change and promote mental health and wellness. Counselors should be able to link clearly defined theory with a variety of alternative interventions that will facilitate change in the client system. This includes being able to understand and explain the theoretical underpinnings supporting the various therapeutic interventions they employ in the counseling process.
2. Assessment Techniques
Assessment techniques are used to assess and evaluate the client system. These techniques include competently applying DSM IV diagnostic criteria utilizing all five axes. Competence in applying assessment skills from a variety of therapeutic orientations is also included along with the ability to administer and interpret psychological instruments with the required education and training.
The integration competency and some of its underlying standards are related to assessment techniques. They include: assessing extra-familial stress, consistently intervening by including others in the support system; considering cultural diversity issues of self and clients in therapy by acknowledging blind spots, stereotypes and incongruities when they arise or are brought to his or her attention.
3. Interpersonal Assessment
Interpersonal assessment skills include a variety of techniques for assessing the client system's interpersonal dynamics. Competence in applying a variety of theoretical orientations to interpersonal interactions is included along with the ability to use psychological instruments designed for these purposes with the required education and training.
The integration competency standard, being able to assess the impact of familial stress and designing appropriate interventions, is a part of the interpersonal assessment domain.
Creating a therapeutic milieu is an integral competency in interpersonal assessment. It includes effectively communicating respect, acceptance, and warmth to clients. It includes affirming the client's uniqueness, strengths, potential and an inherent ability to problem-solve. Competence in using self in initiating and sustaining the therapeutic relationship and maintaining engagement with clients throughout therapy are also important components.
Processing is another competency in interpersonal assessment. It includes being able to observe similarities in global system interactional patterns, consistently articulating and addressing more general systemic patterns and assessing self and using self as part of the system and therapeutic interventions. Being aware of the influence of self in all therapeutic interactions and interventions with client systems is also required.
4. Client Conceptualization
Being able to conceptualize the client system requires the counselor to demonstrate competence in the assessment, processing, integration, therapeutic structure and intervention competencies by demonstrating the supporting standards in each category. Counselors must be able to conceptualize the client system before they can assess it, formulate interventions and evaluate the impact of those interventions in terms of targeted treatment outcomes.
5. Individual Differences
Understanding individual differences is a life-long process. As discussed earlier, we each have a unique set of filters through which we view the world and the people we interact with in it. We are a composite of our families of origin, our life experiences, our culture, generation and ethnicity, our gender, sexual/relational orientation and age, our abilities/disabilities and so many other factors. Stereotypes, belief systems, blind spots, the media, our families and personal experiences all shape our perspective of individual differences.
The more we learn about ourselves the more we realize we have yet to learn about ourselves. The ancient Greeks believed that to "Know Thyself" was the ultimate pursuit of knowledge. Plato, Socrates and Pythagoras among other ancient sages have all been credited with this directive. Some early writings proclaim it actually came from the heavens. Philosophers, spiritual leaders, and teachers from all cultures and every generation have written about knowing ourselves as a life-long study.
The integration competency and some of its supporting standards are related to individual differences. They include: recognizing the influence of gender in clinical assessments and therapeutic interventions with client systems; and demonstrating awareness and sensitivity to culture/diversity issues (race, color, ethnicity/cultural issues, sexual/relational orientation, age/generation, individual differences/styles, abilities/disabilities, religion/spirituality) in clinical assessments, treatment planning and interventions.
6. Theoretical Orientation
Counselors should be able to articulate a variety of theoretical orientations and how the key concepts in each model relate to clinical assessment, evaluation, and intervention in client systems. They should also be able to describe their own personal model for counseling and be able to compare and contrast it to other models.
7. Treatment Goals & Plans
Counselors should be able to competently develop comprehensive treatment plans with specific goals and objectives focused on facilitating mental health and wellness in the client system. The integration competency and several of its supporting standards relate to treatment goals and planning. They include: considering previous sessions for cases, formulating a coherent and comprehensive overall plan for cases, and being able to convene meetings involving clients and professionals regarding treatment planning and clinical interventions.
8. Professional Ethics
Professional ethics includes the professional development competency. Counselors should be able to consistently demonstrate the ability to promote their own professional growth, engage in self-directed learning by pursuing constructive feedback from supervisors and integrating it into their therapeutic assessments, evaluations and clinical interventions.
Practicing self-supervision by seeking consultation from colleagues and integrating this data into their clinical practice, consistently recognizing and appropriately responding to ethical issues in accordance with professional standards, and presenting oneself as a responsible and competent professional to clients and other professionals are additional standards supporting the professional development competency.
Counselors in training should consistently come prepared for clinical supervision, providing raw data, and live observation, tape or case presentation materials as directed by the clinical supervisor. They should be self-reflective of their own work and seek to integrate feedback from self and others to create personal goals for future professional growth and development.
1. Motivation
The counselor's level or degree of motivation will probably vary within and between each developmental stage. Personal motivation influences the counselor's willingness and desire to grow and develop. Fluctuations in motivation can be monitored and when it is perceived to be diminishing, appropriate strategies can be implemented to enhance it.
Supervisors can discuss this phenomenon beforehand and identify effective strategies for enhancing motivation in each supervisee. Some counselors are internally motivated and others are externally motivated. Uncovering the supervisee's motivational style and collaboratively formulating effective interventions can be a helpful tool.
2. Self-Other Awareness
Counselors deepen and broaden their degrees of self-other awareness during each stage of their professional development. Supervisors can monitor and encourage this process by asking reflection-oriented questions, giving focused feedback based on observations and opinions and providing data for on-going discussions.
The counselor's degree of self and other awareness and his or her abilities around separating one from the other and articulating the differences mature and develop over the course of his or her development. This impacts processing skills, assessment skills and relationship skills as well as his or her ability to manage transference and counter transference issues.
Supervisors can enhance development in this area by consistently providing coaching and feedback focused on these areas. Counselors seem to become less self-conscious and more confident in making assessments, assuming self-responsibility and encouraging clients to assume self-responsibility as they progress through the developmental stages.
3. Dependency/Autonomy
Learning to manage dependency and encourage autonomy are both important tasks in counselor development. Clients typically need some dependency on the counselor early in treatment and moving them toward autonomy and independence and away from dependency upon both the counselor and the treatment are important therapeutic goals.
Counselors are typically more dependent on their supervisors in early skills development stages and supervision should be directed toward gradually and incrementally developing the counselor's autonomy and independence while reducing dependency upon the supervisor's insights, assessments, feedback and coaching.
Supervisors should have each supervisee complete a Supervisee Self - Assessment at the beginning of the clinical supervision relationship. This self- assessment should also be compared to the Supervisee Competency Assessments obtained from his or her previous clinical supervisors. A Supervisee Self - Assessment Form follows:
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Supervisee Self - Assessment ______________________ ____/____/____
DIRECTIONS: This is a self-assessment evaluating your development in seven Competencies with several specific Standards supporting each Competency. A rating at "Meets Standard" indicates competence that meets acceptable levels for a therapist. A rating at "Exceeds Standard" indicates competence that is above expected standards for a therapist. A rating at "Below Standard" indicates competence that fails to meet the standards for a therapist. #1 PRACTICE MANAGEMENT COMPETENCY (Standards demonstrating supervisee's ability to coordinate caseload, and follow agency policies & procedures.)
COMMENTS:
#2. THERAPEUTIC MILIEU COMPETENCY (Standards demonstrating supervisee's ability to initiate and sustain therapeutic relationships with clients.)
COMMENTS:
#3. PROCESSING COMPETENCY (Standards demonstrating supervisee's ability to observe and comprehend therapeutic interactions.)
COMMENTS:
#4 INTEGRATION COMPETENCY (Standards demonstrating supervisee's ability to integrate observations with theory to construct appropriate treatment goals and therapeutic interventions.)
COMMENTS:
#5. THERAPEUTIC STRUCTURE COMPETENCY (Standards demonstrating supervisee's ability to direct therapeutic process and relationships appropriately).
COMMENTS:
#6 INTERVENTIONS COMPETENCY (Standards demonstrating supervisee's ability to construct therapeutic interventions that will facilitate change).
OBSERVATIONS:
#7. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT COMPETENCY (Standards demonstrating ability to promote professional growth and present oneself as a therapist).
COMMENTS:
OVERALL EVALUATION: SUMMARY COMMENTS:
FUTURE GOALS & OBJECTIVES:
______________________ ____/____/____
______________________ ____/____/____
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The supervisee position description presented earlier contains seven core competencies. These are: practice management, therapeutic milieu, processing, integration, therapeutic structure, interventions, and professional development.
By referring to the core competencies and the supporting standards in the position description, the supervisor and the employee can work together collaboratively to formulate appropriate competency improvement goals.
As an inclusive leader, you will use competency coaching to engage your supervisees in a process of continual skills learning and continual competency improvement. Both the supervisor and the supervisee must put forth a great deal of effective effort to maintain open communication and trust in this relationship.
Learning is an incremental process. Learners progress through four stages as they acquire new skills and develop competence in skills application.
O'Conner & Seymour (1993) describe the four traditional stages of learning as: Unconscious Incompetence, Conscious Incompetence, Conscious Competence, and Unconscious Competence. When you learn a new skill, you begin in stage one and progress through stages two, three and four. When stage four is reached, habits are formed and the skill becomes an unconsciously competent behavior. You don't even have to think about doing it -- "it just comes naturally."
At the beginning stage of learning, you don't even know what you don't know. This is the most vulnerable position to be in because you have no benchmarks or comparisons to measure your skill or competence.
When you learned to drive an automobile, you probably received some type of instruction either formally through a school or informally from someone who already knew how to do it. Remember the very first time you actually drove an automobile? Prior to getting behind the wheel, starting the engine, engaging the transmission and applying pressure to the gas pedal for the first time you had no real idea what to expect from the experience. You didn't know what you didn't know!
As you began to move, turn, stop, start, change lanes, and park, you soon discovered your limitations. You knew that applying pressure to the gas pedal would accelerate the car and applying pressure to the brake pedal would slow or stop it. And when you applied your knowledge, the car may have actually gone faster than you anticipated when applying pressure to the gas pedal or it may have stopped slower or quicker than you expected when applying pressure to the break pedal.
Remember your first few attempts at parallel parking or making a "Y" turn? Or, how about backing up while pulling a trailer? You probably knew what to do but the car just didn't seem to do it the way you intended.
You knew what you needed to know and you learned that you were not fully competent at performing the task. At this stage though, you knew what you didn't know so you could adjust your behavior to achieve the desired results.
After some practice, you began to experience driving smoothly. The car would travel at the speed you intended, remain in the lane you wanted to be in and stop when you wanted it to stop. When you gave your full attention and concentration to the task of driving, you could do so competently. You now knew what you needed to know and you could demonstrate competency with conscious intention.
Once we have developed a habit with a new skill, we move to the unconscious competence stage of learning. We are able to drive without really consciously thinking about each step in the process. It just seems to come naturally to us.
Have you ever left your home on a day off work intending to drive to a destination other than work and found yourself driving in the direction of your office instead of the direction you intended? Have you ever been traveling a regular route on an expressway or freeway and suddenly realized that you didn't know where you were until you approached a familiar landmark or the next exit sign? When this happened, you were practicing unconscious competence. You were driving on "automatic pilot." At those moments, you slipped "spontaneously" into an altered state of consciousness -- a light hypnotic state in which you continued to do the task at hand but you were no longer thinking consciously about doing it.
Achievement goal theory comes out of research on students and their academic achievement (e.g. Ames 1992, Dweck 1986, Urdan 1997, Urdan & Maehr 1995). The basic premise is that achievement goals differentially influence academic achievement through variations in the quality of cognitive self-regulation processes. Cognitive self-regulation means active engagement in personal learning. This includes: analyzing the demands of each assignment, planning for and mobilizing needed resources to meet these demands, and monitoring progress toward successful task (assignment) completion (Pintrich 1999, Zimmerman 1990, Zimmerman et al 1994). Achievement goals influence the quality, timing and appropriateness of cognitive strategies that in turn, control the quality of each student's individual accomplishments (Covington, 2000).
Achievement goal theorists have proposed a two-fold hypothesis. First, learning goals favor deep level, strategic-processing of information leading to increased school achievement. Second, performance goals trigger superficial, rote-level processing that exerts a stultifying influence on achievement (Covington, 2000).
Research shows that students who practice a learning goal orientation have a tendency to believe the key to success is putting forth effective effort and failure, despite trying hard, does not indicate incompetence but simply implies they have not implemented the most effective learning strategies (Nicholls 1984, Pintrich & Schunk, 1996).
Students who practice a performance goal orientation fall into two categories, performance/approach goal orientation and performance/avoidance goal orientation. Those students who are performance oriented toward approaching success invest considerable effort in highly sophisticated study strategies in their relentless pursuit to outperform others. Those students who are performance oriented toward avoiding failure demonstrate patterns of reduced effort and task persistence. Performance oriented students, both approach and avoidant, are driven by fears of incompetence. The approach group strives to avoid failure through success and the avoidant group sets up failures, as needed, but in face-saving ways that do not make them appear incompetent (Covington, 2000).
These concepts can be applied to adults in terms of learning new skills or competencies in the workplace. Supervisors can coach supervisees by encouraging them to set learning goals that focus on incrementally improving to a standard. Supervisors can deliver focused feedback, based on their observations of the supervisee's behaviors and interactions, to enhance their skills practice and skills development.
Supervisees can be coached to focus on putting forth effective effort that enhances their ability to improve to a standard instead of engaging in performance oriented activities that focus on proving themselves and striving for perfection.
Here are some key guidelines for both supervisors and supervisees that support a learning goal orientation to skills development and the demonstration of competence in essential job skills.
The competency coaching process is three-fold. First, competency coaching begins with your collective observations of the employee's on the job competence. This is accomplished by observing the employee's behaviors.
Second, you compare observed behaviors to the pre-determined goals you have formulated together, and then you share this information with the employee. You both formulate strategies that will support the employee's incremental learning and incremental improvement toward achieving the targeted competency goals.
Third, you provide feedback to the employee addressing both what appeared to be effective effort and what could be demonstrated differently. By observing behaviors, formulating strategies and providing feedback, you can assist and motivate each employee as the employee strives to implement competency improvement strategies and hit targeted goals. This three-fold process is ongoing throughout the course of the coaching relationship between the supervisor and the employee.
Coaching is a real-time process; it’s not a classroom training or educational event. Coaching focuses on job task competency with a primary goal of enhancing an employee's knowledge and cognitive processing around a specific set of job skills.
Effective coaching develops critical thinking skills, generates new ideas, and creates new behaviors related to job competencies. Four factors can diminish competence. These are inadequate knowledge/skill, a debilitating environment, inadequate resources and lack of motivation.
If inadequate knowledge or lack of skill is present, the supervisee will not be able to perform essential job duties. Coaching can focus on increasing knowledge and new skills development to incrementally improve learning and competence.
Second, if the workplace environment is inadequate, competence will diminish. Isolating environmental problems such as poor working conditions, inadequate processes and/or procedures or failing systems, and strategically reengineering them for optimum effectiveness will enhance individual employee competence.
Third, adequate resources and supplies must be available to everyone. This includes work supplies, physical space, technology, staff, and supervision.
Fourth, if the employee is lacking sufficient motivation to perform to a standard, coaching can facilitate enhancing motivation. Some employees become unmotivated because they lack direction, focus and purpose. Others become unmotivated because they can't seem to associate benefits or rewards with their actions. Some need more personal or public recognition, affirmation and approval. Effective coaching will uncover an employee's motivational needs and then strategies can be formulated to enhance motivation.
Competence Factor Assessment Grid
The Competence Factor Assessment Grid can be used to analyze which of these four factors are contributing to competence problems. Grid #1 is Motivation, Grid #2 is Environment/Resources, Grid #3 is Job Fit and Grid #4 is Job Knowledge/Job Skills.
To determine where the competence problem may be, answer each of these questions by rating the employee as "Low "or "High" for each question.
Can the employee demonstrate sufficient job knowledge and essential skills to perform job duties?
Is the employee motivated to perform the job?
If the employee rates "High" for Job Knowledge and Job Skill and rates "High" for Motivation, then the competence problem's primary cause may be in the area of Environment or Resources. An organizational assessment should uncover these deficiencies and a strategic plan can be formulated to reengineer inadequate processes, procedures, facilities or supply availability.
If the employee rates "Low" for Job Knowledge and Job Skill and rates "Low" for Motivation, then the primary cause of the competence problem may be in the area of Job Fit. An evaluation can be conducted to determine if another position may be a better fit for the employee either inside or outside the agency.
If the employee rates "Low" for Job Knowledge and Job Skill and "High" for Motivation, then the competence problem's primary cause may be in the area of inadequate knowledge or skill. A training and skills assessment can be conducted and a training plan can be implemented targeting specific learning and skills development areas.
If the employee rates "High" for Job Knowledge and Job Skill and "Low" for Motivation, then the primary cause of the competence problem may be in the area of Motivation.
Competence Factor Assessment Grid
The competency appraisal should be perceived as a formal process designed to highlight a supervisee's areas of strength and to target areas for professional development and skills improvement. Beginning the process with a self-assessment, completed by the supervisee, adding any assessments completed by previous supervisors and combining the position description provides baseline data for initial competence goal setting.
Competency appraisals should be conducted at regular intervals. The time frames should be discussed beforehand. A few organizations conduct monthly competency appraisals, some do them quarterly, others do them annually and still others don't do them at all. Once a policy is set, it is important to consistently implement it. It is recommended that quarterly competency appraisals be held with beginning supervisees.
A sample Supervisee Competency Appraisal Assessment form follows integrating the seven core competencies and supporting standards presented earlier in this text.
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Supervisee Competency Appraisal Assessment ______________________ ______________________ ____/____/____
DIRECTIONS: This assessment evaluates a Supervisee's development in seven Competencies with several specific Standards supporting each Competency. A rating at "Meets Standard" indicates competence that meets acceptable levels for a therapist. A rating at "Exceeds Standard" indicates competence that is above expected standards for a therapist. A rating at "Below Standard" indicates competence that fails to meet the standards for a therapist. #1 PRACTICE MANAGEMENT COMPETENCY (Standards demonstrating supervisee's ability to coordinate caseload, and follow agency policies & procedures.)
OBSERVATIONS:
#2. THERAPEUTIC MILIEU COMPETENCY (Standards demonstrating supervisee's ability to initiate and sustain therapeutic relationships with clients.)
OBSERVATIONS:
#3. PROCESSING COMPETENCY (Standards demonstrating supervisee's ability to observe and comprehend therapeutic interactions.)
OBSERVATIONS:
#4 INTEGRATION COMPETENCY (Standards demonstrating supervisee's ability to integrate observations with theory to construct appropriate treatment goals and therapeutic interventions.)
OBSERVATIONS:
#5. THERAPEUTIC STRUCTURE COMPETENCY (Standards demonstrating supervisee's ability to direct therapeutic process and relationships appropriately).
OBSERVATIONS:
#6 INTERVENTIONS COMPETENCY (Standards demonstrating supervisee's ability to construct therapeutic interventions that will facilitate change).
OBSERVATIONS:
#7. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT COMPETENCY (Standards demonstrating ability to promote professional growth and present oneself as a therapist).
OBSERVATIONS:
OVERALL EVALUATION: SUMMARY OBSERVATIONS & COMMENTS:
FUTURE GOALS & OBJECTIVES:
______________________ ____/____/____
______________________ ____/____/____
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This model illustrates the competency appraisal process in three stages.
The first stage is a competency standards agreement reached between the supervisor and supervisee based on the position description's competencies and supporting standards.
The second stage is competence coaching which occurs on an on-going basis between quarterly competence appraisal meetings.
The third stage is hitting the targeted competency standards, which occurs with effective effort on the part of the supervisee and effective competence coaching (observing behaviors, formulating strategies and providing feedback) on the part of the supervisor.
How was your concept of the competency appraisal process similar to the model? How was it different?
How would you implement competence coaching in your clinical supervision practice?
What are the benefits?
What are the risks?
How is coaching different from therapy or counseling?