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Inclusive clinical supervision leadership is an authentic, aligned coaching relationship. It is a dynamic, genuine interrelationship among the clinical supervisor, each supervisee, and their clients. Inhibitors to continuous learning and continuous improvement are quickly identified and swiftly removed or minimized and enhancers are implemented wherever possible. Inclusive leaders actively and authentically engage each supervisee in an ongoing process of learning new practice-related skills and continually improving clinical competence in alignment with the profession’s standards of practice.
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Many inhibitors or barriers to inclusion exist in our culture. Inclusive leaders must develop skills to quickly identify and swiftly remove or minimize these inhibitors to create an inclusive environment. There are four general categories of inclusion inhibitors. These are Intrapsychic, Relational, Structural and Cultural.
The first category is Intrapsychic Inhibitors. These exist within your psyche. They may include any combination of the primary emotional reactions we experience in response to conflict. These primary emotional responses are hurt, fear and shame.
Primary Emotional Responses: Hurt, Fear & Shame
Hurt
Hurt may be emotional or physical in nature. Oftentimes hurt is both emotional and physical, either form can lead to the other. When you believe someone has hurt you, this behavior may be generalized to other people whom you perceive to be like the individual who inflicted your emotional and/or physical pain.
If you have previously experienced hurt from women in your life, you may believe that women are more hurtful toward you than men. This belief can influence how you interact with women as clients, coworkers and supervisees. The same type of reaction toward men could occur if you had previously experienced hurt from men in your life.
This dynamic can be applied to each of the diversity dimensions in the Diversity Spheres we discussed in Chapter One. This type of generalization creates stereotypes and perpetuates stereotyping.
Stereotypes
A stereotype is a widely held belief about a person formed by assumptions believed to be true about the group within which they are perceived to belong.
Groups are stereotyped because of limited experiences individuals in one group have with individuals from other groups. Men have experiences with women and then make assumptions they perceive to be true about all women. Members of one racial or ethnic group have experiences with members of a different racial or ethnic group and make assumptions they perceive to be true about all members of that race or ethnic background.
No one is exempt from stereotyping. We all engage in it and we have all been victimized by it. Some of us have been harmed more frequently than others. Stereotypes are like the sun's rays, touching all of us. Some of us are more easily burned than others.
Stereotyping itself is not good or bad, or right or wrong, it is a neutral, cognitive process. It is how we act toward others in response to stereotypes that may be harmful or damaging.
Stereotyping, at its core, is an integral part of our mental processing. We process information by association. Often this occurs unconsciously. By consciously associating consequences with our actions, we are able to make conscious choices about future behaviors and predictions about possible outcomes.
Attention deficit disorder, at its core, could be described as a limited ability to stereotype. It is an impairment of cognitive ability in the areas of attention, focus and concentration. The inability to consistently associate consequences with behaviors or to exhibit impulse control is a function of an impaired ability to chain or sequence events by association.
Often people are described as insane or stupid because they do something over and over again despite painful consequences. Others comment, "Why don't they get it?" "When will they ever learn?" or "What were you thinking?"
Alcoholics Anonymous has made one definition of insanity quite popular: "Insanity is doing the same thing over again expecting a different outcome." If we lost our ability to make conscious associations and chain events in our minds, we would quickly become immobilized both mentally and physically.
When you draw conclusions about another person based upon your previous interactions, you are making assumptions about how they believe, behave and feel. You will frequently adjust your interactions with them based on these beliefs and you will probably be surprised or confused when they don't behave in ways you expect or predict.
Similarly, first impressions are quickly formed when you initially meet someone new. How often has someone told you that you remind him or her of someone else? It may be your appearance, accent, mannerisms or any number of characteristics causing them to make this association. This is stereotyping.
They have consciously identified it and made the connection by commenting to you about it. If they had not made this conscious association and acted on this belief, expecting you to behave like the person with whom they were associating you with, then the stereotyping could have become hurtful or damaging to your relationship.
Consider a similar scenario, returning to The Family Service Center, where Henry says to Juanita "I just have to tell you that you aren't anything like I thought you would be when we first met!" Usually this type of statement is intended to be complimentary. Henry's intent was to convey to Juanita that he was mistaken in his first impression and that he is pleasantly surprised to be wrong. The underlying message is that Henry had stereotyped Juanita based on his unique diversity filters and later learned that the beliefs he had formulated about her in his mind were not actually true or factual.
Unfortunately, some people stereotype others based on first impressions and then discover some "truth" or validation later in the relationship. Then they tend to share this information with others instead of confronting the individual involved. Consider this alternative dialogue between Henry and Carl back at The Family Service Center:
"Hey Carl, got a minute?"
"Sure Henry, what's up?"
"Carl, do you know Juanita, the new intern?
"Yeah, we're in the same supervision group this month. Why do you ask?"
"Well see, when I first met her I thought she was going to be a really difficult person to work with and I wasn't too far off; in fact, she's beyond difficult!"
This type of triangulation perpetuates stereotyping and damages collegial relationships. Typically, it escalates further into more triangulation with Carl telling someone else what Henry has told him about Juanita and the pattern continues rampantly through the organization. Inevitably, something gets back to Juanita and rarely does it sound anything like what Henry first said to Carl.
We cannot stop stereotyping. It's an essential mental process. However, we can work on surfacing these assumptions and beliefs to consciousness. Once we are aware of the stereotype, we can usually trace its origins. Then we can make conscious choices about whether or not to act on these beliefs.
As a clinical supervisor, you may form stereotypes about your supervisees based on previous experiences with others in supervision. These beliefs may come from your assumptions about many different groups including:
The list could include all the diversity dimensions previously discussed.
Fear
Fear is the second and broadest category of emotion. It may be in the form of inferiority, rejection, inadequacy, failure, aloneness or isolation. Oftentimes it’s a combination of several of these states.
When you initially experience hurt after a conflicting interaction, fear frequently follows. You may become fearful of further rejection or hurt in response to being stereotyped. The hurt and fear can become inhibitors to your competence on the job. Avoiding potentially hurtful or fearful interactions may lead to isolation and withdrawal from colleagues.
Let's go back to the interchange between Henry and Juanita at the Family Service Center. Here is the exchange between them:
Next, Henry goes up to Juanita and says,
" Hello, Joanne, how are you this afternoon?"
She says,
"I'm fine, Henry, and please, call me Juanita. How are you?"
What stereotypes may have played a role in influencing Henry's decision to call Juanita "Joanne" when he greeted her for the first time?
There are probably several possibilities. One is that Henry may have assumed that Juanita would want to go by a more "American" sounding name because of the potential difficulties with correct pronunciation. Another possibility is that he may have assumed she would want to distance herself from her Hispanic heritage and appear to be more "Americanized" with a more common sounding name.
What possible impacts could Henry's comment to Juanita have had on her?
Again, there are several possibilities. Juanita may have been offended by Henry's choice to avoid her given name. She may have experienced a degree of hurt too. This could also have been combined with a degree of fear. This fear could have been in the form of a fear of rejection or fear of judgment by Henry because of her Hispanic culture and name.
Juanita also took a calculated risk by self-disclosing that being called by her real name was important to her. She risked Henry saying that he wanted to continue to call her Joanne or asking her why she wanted to go by "Juanita."
How might Juanita's self-disclosure and request have impacted Henry?
Henry may have believed (assuming a stereotypical belief was true or factual) that Juanita would be more comfortable with an "American" name so he could have been confused or surprised when he gave her that option and she corrected him. Or, he may not have known how to pronounce Juanita's name correctly so he may have been embarrassed for calling her Joanne instead of asking her how to correctly pronounce her name. There are other possibilities, too, that could explain how Henry was impacted by Juanita's feedback.
Let's return to the dialogue and continue our analysis:
"Oh, Juhnita…. er.… Juneta,… uh, I mean… Juanita,… I'm sorry, I'll try to get it right from now on….. I'm great! Thanks for asking. Anyway, I see you've joined the Family Service Center after being in Child Protective Services for several years. I guess you must have finally gotten fed up with all the red tape in a government agency, right."
"Actually, Henry, I applied for this opportunity because of the skills and training I received at CPS. I have a lot of experience in family work and I'm hoping to get to apply my skills as well as develop new ones with some family cases here at the Family Service Center."
What stereotypes may have played a role in influencing Henry's comments about Juanita's decision to join the Family Service Center?
Henry may have held any number of common stereotypical beliefs about people of color including:
Shame
Shame is the third category of emotion. It has three progressively deeper levels, embarrassment, humiliation and mortification. Embarrassment occurs when we feel self-conscious, ill at ease, disconcerted or flustered. The next level is humiliation, which occurs when we feel a loss of pride or dignity. Mortification, the third level, is the deepest and most profound level of shame. It occurs when we feel so deeply humiliated that we are afraid to face someone again. It leaves us with deep feelings of helplessness, hopelessness and despair.
If the feelings of hurt are deep enough, fear follows close behind because of our desire to avoid more hurt. Shame may also come into play if we are embarrassed that the initial conflict occurred in the first place. If the conflicting event was public in nature, the shame may be in the form of humiliation or even mortification.
What are some of the possible impacts Henry's comments could have had on Juanita?
She could have assumed that Henry was making assumptions about her abilities based on common stereotypes. She could have felt some degree of hurt, fear or shame or any combination of these emotions too.
For example, she may have experienced hurt because once again she was a victim of stereotyping. This could have been combined with feelings of fear of future rejection for desirable positions at the Family Service Center or a fear of being judged or evaluated unfairly because of his beliefs about her abilities. This in turn could lead to feelings of embarrassment because of fearing others might see her and believe things about her that are not true. You can probably identify several other possibilities too.
Here is the next portion of the conversation:
[Henry says] "Really, I didn't realize that. My strengths are in family treatment too, so I was thinking of having you assist Susan and Bill with the intake process. If you need any help or have any concerns be sure and speak up, both Susan and Bill have a lot of expertise in that area."
"Okay Henry, but I was really hoping to be more involved in the family treatment side too. Do you think I could play a part in that area as well?"
"Look, Juanita, I think it would be best for the team and for the clients if you just started slow and easy with the intake role. You'll have a lot of help and the pressures won't be as severe. You can handle some pressure and tight deadlines can't you?"
What other stereotypes may be at play influencing Henry's comments to Juanita?
(She has a lot of experience in family work and she is hoping to apply her skills as well as develop new ones with some family cases.)
Henry may be operating from the belief that numerous stereotypes are true for Juanita. These could include:
Gender/Role Stereotypes -- Women are weaker than men. Women are fragile, they aren't assertive or able to speak up when they need assistance. They don't know their own limitations. They can be vulnerable, easily over-extended. They should be submissive and compliant to a male superior.
What other stereotypes can you identify as possible filters for Henry?
How has Juanita been impacted by this last dialogue with Henry?
Juanita agrees to follow Henry's lead by starting in the Intake process but she states once again that her desire is to work with families in treatment too. When Henry says,
"Look, Juanita, I think it would be best for the team and for the clients if you just started slow and easy with the intake role. You'll have a lot of help and the pressures won't be as severe. You can handle some pressure and tight deadlines can't you?"
Juanita may interpret his comments as demeaning and judgmental. She may assume that Henry thinks she is at risk for getting in "over her head" or that she is incapable of handling pressure and tight deadlines.
Because the conversation ends at this point, Juanita may be at risk for withdrawing from Henry in the future. She may avoid seeking out opportunities to stretch and grow professionally while at The Family Service Center because of this experience of being shut down and held back from developing her skills further in family therapy.
What impact might this dynamic have on other team members as they observe Henry's treatment toward Juanita?
Ultimately, how might Henry's treatment of Juanita effect future clients in treatment at the Family Service Center?
Secondary Emotional Responses: Anger, Aggression, Passive/Aggression
If you fail to acknowledge and work through your primary emotional responses to a conflicting event, then a secondary emotional response will be triggered. These secondary responses, anger, aggression or passive/aggression, are defensive reactions to mask the pain of the initial hurt, fear or shame.
Anger
When you become angry it is always a secondary emotional reaction to a primary emotion. Anger is a defensive reaction that masks the primary pain. This is why you sometimes experience a spontaneous emotional shift from angry feelings to tearfulness and sadness. A breakthrough occurs and a connection is made with the primary emotion that was previously being masked by the anger. Anger cannot be resolved and worked through without getting in touch with the underlying triggering event and primary emotional response that was originally blocked by the anger.
Aggression
Sometimes anger is expressed or acted out in the form of aggression. It can be overt and physical in nature or it can be verbal in its expression. It is usually targeted at someone or something that is perceived as the cause. This may show up in an agency or organization in several forms such as:
Passive/Aggression
Sometimes anger is expressed covertly or indirectly in the form of passive/aggression. Instead of targeting someone or something directly, an indirect route is chosen. This may show up at work as:
Tertiary Emotional Responses: Retribution, Retaliation
When both the primary and secondary emotional responses are unresolved, tertiary emotional responses occur further defending against the primary hurt, fear and shame and the secondary anger, in the form of retribution or retaliation. This third level of emotion must be acknowledged and worked through before the second level can be adequately addressed. Only then, can the primary emotional responses be worked through and resolved.
A few years ago, two bumper stickers were quite common in southern California. One said, "Get back's a bitch!" and the other said, "I don't get mad, I get even!" These both illustrate this concept.
Consider the mental state of crime families and gangs portrayed in the media. The focus is on retaliation or getting even. Payback is the ultimate goal. Often it is unemotional and detached in nature. Celebratory events such as weddings, birthday parties, or first communions may occur just before and immediately following an extremely violent incident such as a murder or physical violence including breaking bones or severely disfiguring someone.
Retribution and retaliation show up in agencies and organizations in several forms including:
Work stoppages
Strikes
Major property damage
Terminations (not for cause)
Transfers to undesirable positions or locations
Demotions (not for cause)
Clinical supervisors can confront and resolve conflicts by first identifying the level of emotional response and working through each level until the primary cause is isolated, addressed and resolved. Ten Steps for Conflict Resolution will be presented later in Chapter Seven, Effectively Managing Conflict.
We all have blind spots that hinder our abilities to see what others see, even when we are looking at the same data. This unconscious process impacts our decision-making and our conclusions. Look at the framed sentence below and count the number of times the letter "F" appears within the text. Write your answer in the space provided on the following page.
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FINISHED FILES ARE THE RESULT OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY CAREFULLY COMBINED WITH EXPERIENCE OF MANY YEARS OF EXPERTS |
Next, take this page to five or six different people and have them complete the exercise too. Do not tell them how many "F's" you or others have found. Record each individual person's answers beneath your own.
Number of "F's" I found: _________
Number of "F's" others found: _________
Number of "F's" others found: _________
Number of "F's" others found: _________
Number of "F's" others found: _________
Number of "F's" others found: _________
Number of "F's" others found: _________
Were there any differences? Did everyone find the same number of "F's?"
Refer to the end of this chapter for the correct number of "F's" that appear in this sentence, then come back to this page and answer the following questions:
How can it be that several different people can carry out the same task, observing the same data and reach very different conclusions?
What factors can you identify that may attribute to these differences?
Some of us learned to speed read. A principle of speed-reading is to skim over the "non-words" in a text. Of is one of these non words.
When we read the word "OF" what does the "F" sound like? (It sounds like "V").
How many times does the word "OF" appear in the text? (4 times)
Could this have contributed to some of the "missing F's?" (Yes, 4 of them)
Did you notice the letter "F" in the words "CAREFULLY" and "SCIENTIFIC?"
Why could these two "F's" have been easily overlooked?
What applications can we make from this exercise to our goal of creating an inclusive workplace environment?
Is it possible that we are "skimming over some of the 'F's" when we choose supervisees?
When we assess their skills?
When we evaluate their clinical interpretations and interventions?
When we conduct co-therapy sessions with them?
When you are in a majority group, you enjoy special privileges. These privileges may be taken for granted. You may even consider them rights to which you are entitled.
When you enjoy more privilege in an organization or culture, you are at a greater risk of skimming over "F's" who have less privilege and entitlement. Typically, these are people in non-majority groups.
In American culture, white people enjoy a greater degree of privilege and a deeper sense of entitlement because of their historical majority status. Although whites are quickly losing majority status in many cities and in some companies, their privilege is still extensive and pervasive.
White Privilege
Many authors have written on the concept of white privilege (Hohman, 2000, Fowler, 1998, Jensen, 1998, 1999, and McIntosh,1988). Hohman defines white privilege as "the package of benefits granted to people in our society who have white skin; a parcel of privileges that white people have been granted, which allows them certain free passes to certain things in our society that are not easily available to people of color" (Hohman, 2000, p.1).
Fowler describes white privilege as "The Problem." He says,
Attention fellow white folk: America's deeply-entrenched racial dilemma is not a black, Asian, Latino, or other minority problem. We are the problem. And if we ever hope to overcome it, we must be willing to turn a critical lens on ourselves, to understand the systems whereby we maintain white power -- to problemitize being white for once. To address a system that maintains domination by not being talked about, we must confront what it means to be "white."
He goes on to say
…the problem is a system of overprivileged whiteness in which we all - consciously and unconsciously participate. …Certainly there are black, Latino, and Asian issues in America that those groups must address for themselves. Simple possession of a minority skin color does not make one a saint. But who are we, as white folk who haven't viscerally experienced "being" a problem, to tell them [non whites] how to deal with those problems? We must first examine whiteness as a caste privilege, placing the work needed to attain healthy race relations on ourselves. It's a controversial claim to make (Fowler, 1998, pp 2,3).
Jensen describes white privilege in the following examples:
When I seek admission to a university, apply for a job, or hunt for an apartment, I don't look threatening. Almost all of the people evaluating me for those things look like me -- they are white. They see in me a reflection of themselves, and in a racist world that is an advantage. I smile. I am white. I am one of them. I am not dangerous. Even when I voice critical opinions, I am cut some slack. After all, I'm white (Jensen, 1998, p.2).
Jensen also says,
Here's what white privilege sounds like:
I am sitting in University of Texas office, talking to a very bright and very conservative white student about affirmative action in college admissions, which he opposes and I support.The student says he wants a level playing field with no unearned advantages for anyone. I ask him whether he thinks that in the United Stats being white has advantages. Have either of us, I ask, ever benefited from being white in a world run mostly by white people? Yes, he concedes, there is something real and tangible we could call white privilege.
So, if we live in a world of white privilege -- unearned white privilege -- how does that affect your notion of a level playing field? I ask. He paused for a moment and said, "That really doesn't matter." That statement, I suggested to him, reveals the ultimate white privilege: the privilege to acknowledge you have unearned privilege but ignore what it means (Jensen, 1998, p.1).
McIntosh defines white privilege as "an invisible package of unearned assets that I can count on cashing in each day, but about which I was "meant" to remain oblivious. White privilege is like an invisible weightless knapsack of special provisions, maps, passports, codebooks, visas, clothes, tools, and blank checks" (McIntosh, 1988, p.1).
Clinical supervisors can increase their effectiveness in creating inclusive workplaces and teams by being sensitive to and conscious of their own and others privilege, entitlement and majority status. By monitoring their own position and the positions of their supervisees in terms of privilege, entitlement and majority status, clinical supervisors can enhance inclusiveness and effectively remove these inclusion inhibitors.
Interpersonal Dynamics
It is human nature to gravitate toward people whom we perceive to be like us. The greater the perceived differences between us, the greater the chances that we will not connect with others. Think back to the last time you walked into a networking meeting or a reception of some kind. What was your first action? I imagine you scanned the room looking for someone you recognized. If you failed to notice someone you knew, your next action was probably to seek out someone who appeared approachable. How did you draw this conclusion about someone whom you've never actually met? You probably based your first impressions on stereotypes, associations with people or groups from your past that this person reminded you of at that moment. This connection probably made you feel more comfortable and the association probably led you to perceive him or her as approachable.
When we first meet a group of people or an individual, we look at personal appearance, clothing, hairstyle, jewelry, skin color, height and size. We listen to voices for accents, tone, volume, inflection, rate, pace, speech patterns and language. We notice how they shake hands, (firm, limp, dry, moist) and we notice their eye contact and body language. All these data are used to form a quick first impression. We make initial assumptions about this person or group based upon our first impressions. Then we begin to interact with them based on these initial thoughts and feelings.
A common principle is stated as thoughts determine emotions, and emotions influence actions, then actions result in consequences. We can affect our actions by making conscious, purposeful choices about what we think and feel.
We've known for many years that actions influence feelings. Once again, Alcoholics Anonymous comes to mind with another witty slogan, "Fake it 'til you make it."
Many clinicians have learned to treat exogenous depression in a similar fashion. If you could engage a client in a behavior modification program, getting them to behave or act like they did before they were depressed, frequently the depression would begin to lift.
Clients would be asked to identify what their daily routines were like prior to the depressive episode and then the clinician would prescribe these same routines. Getting up at a pre-determined time each morning, taking a bath or shower, grooming and dressing, going to the barber or beauty shop, gardening, walking, cycling and many other activities of daily living.
After a few weeks of consciously choosing to act differently, despite their depressed thoughts and feelings, they would begin to think and feel less depressed. This change in their thoughts and feelings would result from acting like they did before they were depressed.
Making changes in your interactions with others when you are motivated by stereotypes requires you to consciously choose to behave differently than you are feeling at the moment. Coaching your supervisees to make conscious, purposeful choices in the midst of stereotypical feelings is an important aspect of creating an inclusive environment for clients too.
As a clinical supervisor, you can make conscious choices about creating a diverse team of supervisees despite your tendencies to subconsciously be drawn toward recruiting and training people whom you perceive to be most like yourself.
There are two categories of organizational cultural inhibitors that you will explore next. The first is the organization's founders. The second is the organization's informal practices.
Organization's Founders
The organization's founders may play a pivotal role in contributing to cultural inhibitors that are present within its structure. Typically, when someone wishes to start a new company or business, they seek out fellow associates who share their passion and vision.
Commonly, if two white males start up a business, they will draw from their spheres of influence and contacts to recruit a team to launch the project. Similarly, if two women, or two African-American people or two disabled people or two people from any specific group decided to start up a business, chances are good they would recruit people just like them. If a newly licensed counselor desired to start up a private practice, it's likely that he or she would seek out associates from their school or internship program or a professional association to join with them in this venture.
Creating an inclusive organization with a diverse group of employees requires conscious intentions. Conscious choices must be purposefully made to attract, recruit and retain a diverse workforce. Practicing the Nine Critical Clinical Supervision Skills will contribute significantly toward removing inclusion inhibitors and enhancing an inclusive workplace environment.
Organizational Practices
Organizational practices can contribute to exclusion. Some organizations emphasize the practice of promoting from within and hiring primarily from employee referrals. These two practices can be positive or negative in terms of the potential impact on inclusion.
If an organization is made up of predominantly one group, then it is natural for the members of that group to refer even more members from their own group to the company. If the majority of employees represent one group then many of the promotional opportunities will likely go to similar members too. These behavioral patterns perpetuate exclusion if they continue unchecked.
Social interactions and cultural beliefs and expectations influence our beliefs and our actions toward one another. As described earlier, conflicts occurring in your relationships or social interactions can result in negative emotional responses. These interpersonal dynamics influence your beliefs about society and the culture you live in.
Cultural Beliefs & Expectations
Your cultural beliefs and the expectations you hold about your culture influence your choices about inclusion. When you reflect back on historical cultural events, it is much easier to see the blind spots that were present when those events were contemporary. Often, we fail to see the exclusionary nature of the contemporary events occurring around us in the moment. Our stereotypes influence our thoughts and our behaviors, oftentimes in an unconscious manner.
Contemporary Events
Many of us have blind spots around contemporary events and how stereotypical thinking may influence our decision-making, conclusions and actions toward one another. Consider the Oklahoma City bombing, the fatal attack that occurred on April 19, 1995 at the Alfred P. Murrah building. Initial suspicions focused on "Middle Eastern terrorists" as the attackers. In a matter of days, however, following this terrible event, it was suspected that a U.S. citizen and his accomplices carried out the worst terrorist incident in our history on American soil. Timothy McVeigh and his co-conspirator, Terry Nichols were later tried and convicted for their actions.
A second contemporary issue is a social movement seeking recognition for the rights of gays, lesbians, bisexuals and transgender people. Hate crimes, discrimination, mistreatment and exclusion are frequent occurrences in American society today targeting people in each of these groups.
Religious, political, social and legal arguments abound both pro and con for equal treatment, social justice and fairness toward individuals and groups of gays, lesbians, bisexuals and transgender persons. Some states and municipalities have enacted legislation granting specific rights and barring discriminatory treatment toward individuals and groups because of their sexual orientation. At the time of this writing, there are no federal laws granting protected class status to individuals or groups because of sexual orientation.
Historical Events
Reflecting back on historical events, one or more generations removed from today, these blind spots tend to be less frequent and less encompassing in scope. Four historical events, slavery in North America, the Nazi Holocaust against the Jews, the Japanese-American internment camps following Pearl Harbor during World War II, and giving women the right to vote are clear examples.
First, consider slavery in the United States of America between the 1660's and 1865 when slavery was abolished throughout the United States with the ratification of the 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution. The 1860 census counted 3,953,760 slaves in the southern states ("Slavery," 2001).
Several distinctive features of U.S. slavery existed by the mid-18th century. Over 90% of American slaves lived in the South. In contrast to slaves in most other parts of the Americas, U.S. slaves experienced natural population growth causing self-reproduction of the available slave population.
Although slave importation was outlawed in 1808, the number of slaves continued to rapidly grow, more than tripling from approximately 1.2 million to almost 4 million in a fifty-year period ending in 1860. This natural population growth resulted in a transition from an African to an African American slave population. Only approximately 20% of the slaves in the colonies were African born in the 1770's ("Slavery in the United States," 2001).
Second, consider the Nazi Holocaust against the Jews during World War II. In Europe, President Hindenburg signed Article 48 on February 28, 1933. This authorized Hitler to suspend civil rights, arrest, imprison, and execute suspicious persons (communists, socialists, and labor union leaders) and outlaw non-Nazi press (Austin, 1996). Over six million Jews were systematically slaughtered between 1933 and 1945.
Third, consider the treatment of Japanese-American citizens following Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 and the immediate arrest of 737 Japanese Americans by the end of the day (Daniels, R., Taylor, S. and Kitano, H.,1986). Over 120,000 Japanese were evacuated and held in 12 restricted areas or internments camps between February 4, 1942 and January 2, 1945 when Public Proclamation No. 21 issued by Major General Henry C. Pratt allowed evacuees to return home and lifted contraband regulations ("Timeline," 2000, William Hohri, 2000).
Fourth, women were not given the right to vote until the early 1900's in America. Prior to this time, women could not influence elections or politics and their opinions were not recognized or counted. The legalization of a Woman's right to Vote in 1920 with the passage of the 19th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States helped to reduce some of the negative treatment women receive in our country.
The passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, declaring discrimination because of a person's race, color, religion, sex (which includes pregnancy), and national origin illegal, helped to reduce some of the negative treatment individuals and groups in these experienced too. This expanded the concept of equal treatment for people of color, religious beliefs and women.
In each of these historical incidents, most of us are appalled by the negative treatment given to groups of people solely because of their race, heritage or religion. We look back and question the decisions and we are disgusted by the actions of those who were in power at the time. Privilege, power and majority status can contribute significantly to discrimination, segregation, mistreatment and exclusion directed to those who are in the minority with limited privilege, power and status.
The first step in enhancing inclusion is to consistently practice removing inclusion inhibitors whenever we become aware of their existence. You can sharpen your skills around noticing the indicators of inclusion inhibitors. Sharpening your skills includes learning and practicing the nine clinical supervision skills presented in this book.
You can also develop open, trusting relationships where others will approach you with feedback and concerns. Part of your role as a clinical supervisor is to manage these conflicts whenever one occurs. If your supervisees perceive you as approachable and genuinely concerned about their best interests and well being they are more likely to confide in you when they are experiencing conflicting interactions with you, their peers, or their clients. We will discuss this concept further in Chapter Seven on Managing Conflict, and Chapter Twelve on Managing Allegations of Discrimination.
An important action that any agency or organization can take to enhance inclusion is to implement and enforce a Zero Tolerance Policy. Such a stance, when supported from the top of the organization on down, will significantly contribute to eliminating inclusion barriers.
Zero Tolerance Policy
A clearly stated zero tolerance policy against any form of discrimination or harassment behaviors in the workplace is a valuable inclusion enhancer. The policy should include a statement about employee rights and the company's philosophy about discrimination and harassment. It should define both unlawful and unacceptable behaviors, the consequences for a policy violation, and both internal and external complaint and investigation procedures. More in-depth treatment will be given to employment laws and practices in Chapter Eight, and to illegal discrimination and harassment in Chapters Nine and Ten.
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (E.E.O.C.) has stated that it is usually necessary for employers to create, publish and enforce discrimination and harassment polices that include complaint procedures. The Supreme Court has said, "Title VII is designed to encourage the creation of anti-harassment policies and effective grievance mechanisms." Ellerth, 118 S. Ct. at 2270.
The court has noted that it is not specifically a matter of law but without such policies and practices, it would be extremely difficult for an employer to prove that it had exercised reasonable care to prevent and correct discrimination and harassment incidents. The E.E.O.C. states that employers should provide each employee with a copy of the policy and complaint procedure and then redistribute it periodically. The policy and procedure should be written in an understandable style, easily grasped and utilized by all employees in the workplace. To ensure that every employee is aware of the policy and procedure it should also be posted in centralized locations on the workplace premises and incorporated into the employee handbook. Training should also be provided to all employees to ensure that they each understand their rights and responsibilities. Additional training should also be provided to supervisors due to their additional responsibilities as agents and representatives of the employer (United States E.E.O.C. 1999a).
According to the E.E.O.C.'s publication, Enforcement Guidance: Employer Liability for Unlawful Supervisory Harassment, No. 915.002, published June 18th, 1999, an appropriate policy and complaint procedure addressing discrimination and harassment should minimally contain these five elements:
1. Clear explanations and examples of prohibited conduct
The policy should clearly state that the employer will not tolerate discrimination or harassment in any form directed toward any person in the workplace including coworkers, supervisors, contract workers, customers and visitors. The unlawful forms of discrimination and harassment should also be specifically addressed including sex (with or without sexual conduct), race, color, religion, national origin, age, disability and protected activities including opposing prohibited behaviors and using the complaint process.
Managers and supervisors should clearly communicate the seriousness of these behaviors and the business reasons for prohibiting them in the workplace. If the policy and complaint procedures are issued from the senior leader or leadership team, it is easier to convey the seriousness of such offenses to the workforce.
2. Assurance that complaining parties alleging discrimination or harassment and witnesses to such events will be protected against retaliation
The policy should clearly encourage employees to report any form of discrimination or harassment whenever it occurs, even if it is not perceived to be severe or pervasive in nature. Even though isolated incidents may not be regarded as unlawful, a pattern of such incidents could be interpreted as illegal. An employer must be able to show that it has taken preventative care by doing everything possible to stop discrimination and harassment before it reaches the threshold of unlawful behavior to defend itself against further liability in discrimination and harassment claims.
The management team must clearly support and maintain a workplace environment that is free from retaliation against anyone who lodges a compliant, or participates in an investigation as a witness or party to the complaint. This includes both the complaining victim(s) and the alleged offender(s). During the course of any investigation, the official who is interviewing a party should remind the party about the prohibition against retaliation. The management team should also carefully review all employment-related decisions affecting the complaining person(s) and the witnesses preceding and subsequent to the investigation to ensure that these decisions were not based on motives that could be construed as retaliatory in nature.
3. Clearly defined, step-by-step complaint process that is accessible by all employees with a prompt, complete and objective (impartial) investigation process
The complaint process should be designed in a manner that encourages employees to come forward with their complaints. To facilitate this, a clear explanation of the process and the steps involved in an investigation should be outlined in detail. The process should allow for flexibility and not appear rigid because that could prevent people from coming forward.
Several options should be provided to employees for lodging complaints. The first contact should usually be the employee's direct supervisor. When the direct supervisor is the alleged offender or the employee is afraid of approaching him or her, then the next level supervisor should be available. An option should always be provided for a point of contact outside the employee's direct line of reporting responsibilities. If there is a human resources department, they should also be included as a point of contact. Some agencies have employee grievance hotlines or an employee relations manager; these are both options too.
Because federal laws place limitations on the time frames for filing various charges of discrimination or harassment, the complaint procedure should clearly communicate details about these time frames with the appropriate federal, state and local agencies. It should also be clearly stated that the date for deadlines begins with the last date of unlawful discrimination or harassment. Employees should also be told that they have the right to file a complaint internally with their employer and external with the appropriate fair employment practice agency if they choose.
Management must promptly, thoroughly and impartially assess the complaint and determine if a fact-finding investigation is necessary. If the alleged offender does not deny the allegations, an investigation involving witnesses would be unnecessary and the employer could immediately determine what corrective actions may be appropriate under the circumstances.
If it is determined that an investigation is necessary, it should be initiated immediately. If it appears that the investigation will be complex and lengthy then it may be necessary to take some intermediate steps to prevent further discrimination or harassment or retaliation. These steps could include scheduling changes to avoid contact between the involved parties, transferring the alleged harasser, or placing the alleged harasser on non-disciplinary leave with pay pending the investigation's conclusion. The complaining party should not be involuntarily transferred or burdened in any other manner because such actions could later be construed as unlawful retaliation for lodging the complaint.
The investigator should be a person who can remain objective throughout the course of the investigation. He or she should not have reporting responsibilities, directly or indirectly, to the alleged offender. The investigator should also have appropriate training in interviewing witnesses, offenders and victims, and skill in evaluating credibility.
4. Assurance that confidentiality will be maintained and that disclosures must occur only on a "business need-to-know" basis
Employees should clearly understand that the confidentiality of their allegations must be protected to the extent possible in every instance. Because thorough investigations must be conducted, certain details must be disclosed and discussed with the alleged offender(s) and witnesses. All records should be kept confidential and all disclosures should be made on a business need-to-know basis only.
If an employee tells a supervisor about any alleged discrimination or harassment and then asks for the supervisor to maintain confidentiality, the supervisor must inform the employee of his or her duty to report it to the appropriate company officials and request an investigation into the allegations. The supervisor and the employer both have a duty to prevent and correct any forms of discrimination or harassment occurring in the workplace.
To encourage employees to seek information and to express concerns about discrimination and harassment in the workplace, it may be appropriate to set up an anonymous phone line for discussing questions and concerns about discrimination and harassment. To avoid any confusion about whether or not anonymous complaints must be investigated as a result of this type of phone line, the company should make it clear that the person(s) taking calls are not managers or company officials and they are only able to answer questions and provide information to callers. The policy should make it clear to all employees that an investigation will not occur unless a complaint is made through the company's internal complaint process or unless management learns about the allegations in some other manner.
5. Assurance that the company will take swift, prompt and appropriate corrective action when an investigation determines that an incident of discrimination or harassment has occurred.
The policy should state that following the investigation's conclusion, if a determination is made that discriminatory or harassing behaviors have occurred, appropriate corrective action will be taken promptly. Each member of the senior leadership team and all management and supervisory staff members should actively endorse and support this policy and its procedures to help ensure a workplace free from discrimination and harassment. All employees should be encouraged to ask questions about the policy and to feel supported in their efforts to contribute personally to the creation and maintenance of a workplace free from harassment and discrimination (United States E.E.O.C. 1999a).
Specific skills for coworkers to use in confronting discrimination and harassment will be presented in Chapter Eleven. A discussion of examples of appropriate corrective action and preventative measures will be presented in Chapter Twelve.
"Hidden "F's" Exercise Answers:
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FINISHED FILES ARE THE RESULT OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY CAREFULLY COMBINED WITH EXPERIENCE OF MANY YEARS OF EXPERTS |