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How old would you like to live to be? One hundred and twenty years? The average American male lives to be about 75 years, and the female approximately 78 years. What will the quality of your life be? Will it be difficult, filled with discomfort, disease, depression and fear? Or be happy, easy, filled with enthusiasm and laughter?
Rather than go through life on the physician or specialist merry go round, it is obviously better not to be sick at all. Prevention is the real cure to disease. Strengthening the immune system is a method of prevention.
In order to understand how to strengthen the immune system we need to understand the basic framework of the immune system and how it works. The immune system is perhaps the most complicated “organ” system with hundreds of control mechanisms in dynamic evolution, and this book will only touch on the surface of this vast and intricate system Research brings a constant array of new information that continually changes knowledge and understanding of the field.
The historical background of immunology is ancient and is derived from the study of resistance to infection. Before the discovery of the germ theory it was known for centuries that recovery from illness accompanied the ability to resist infection.
Other recent contributions to immunology have come from related branches of science such as biochemistry, anatomy, developmental biology, genetics, pharmacology, and pathology. In addition, the study of clinical entities such as: allergies, infectious diseases, organ transplantation, rheumatology, immune deficiency diseases, holistic medicine and oncology, have also contributed to new understanding of the complexities of the immune system.
Less than fifty years ago, as surprising as it may seem, immunology was hardly discussed and was thought less important for most clinicians. The study of holistic medicine, that is, the study of the connection between mental and physical health, was also given less credence by clinicians. (More on this connection in the chapter on psychoneuroimmunology).
Immunology is now just beginning to gain momentum as researchers seek ways to fight against pathogens. Detoxification is now a more common occurrence although it is still not routinely practiced. Clinics which offer stress reduction are growing in numbers. Proponents of holistic medicine now include medical doctors, nurse practitioners, nutritionists, etc., and they are no longer considered “quacks.”
Dr. J.A. Bellanti, author of Immunology (W.B. Saunders, 1978), defines immunity as follows: “The immunologic response may be viewed as an adaptive system in which the body attempts to maintain homeostasis between the internal body environment and the external environment.”
Immunity is a condition which exists in the host, and not in the “parasite”. It is composed of the lymphatic vessels, thymus, spleen, liver, tonsils/adenoids, lymph nodes, white blood cells, (lymphocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, monocytes, etc.), and specialized cells – macrophages or mast cells – which reside in the tissues.
In general, the way the immune system works is by recognizing that any part of the body is “self”, and going into action to protect itself from anything foreign (non-self). Some examples of “non-self” can be a virus, retrovirus, bacteria, fungus, parasite or toxic unknowns. Hence,” non-self” is the term which covers everything which is different from one’s own constituents such as microorganisms, smoke, pollution, drugs, alcohol, and even normal foods (as with an allergic condition).
Immunology is the study of the organs, cells, and the molecules responsible for this recognition and disposal. The immune system is the total process of recognition, action and protection against “non-self” substances that attempt to gain access. Natural resistance prevents or eliminates, by antimicrobial defense, the entry of many microorganisms. Consequently, a well functioning immune system recognizes and destroys anything foreign to the body, not only microbes, such as bacteria and viruses, but toxic and unknown compounds. The cycle of the immune system changes cells every 90 days.
The immune system is a dynamic multi-compartmental network of elements which constantly change morphological function. As with all physiological mechanisms the immunological response is adaptive, as it attempts to maintain homeostasis in the body.
The immune response can be divided into two broad types: humoral response, the formation of antibodies occurs. The second immune response is cell mediated, or delayed response -(more on this later).
Antibodies are proteins present mainly in the blood and arise in the presence of an antigen (invader). In the immune response, antigens are processed so that a blueprint of its antigenic parts is made, and the thymus gland is essential in this process and in the immune system because it manufactures T-Cells. Generally, antibodies form in the spleen, lymph nodes, liver, and bone marrow as well as the site where an invader cell enters. Eosinophils and basophiles are the primary tissue cells involved during allergic conditions.
In humoral type of immunity the lymphocytes act as antibody-producing cells, or plasma cells. An antigen and its specific antibody, when brought into close proximity, are bound together by physical and electrical forces, thereby neutralizing the harmful effect of the antigen. This reaction is called a complement and may involve a group of substances working together.
In cell mediated immunity (also known as “delayed hypersensitivity”) the lymphoid cells are already programmed to respond as a result of an earlier antigenic stimulation. The antigens in contact with some of these cells trigger the release of an inflammatory hormone which attracts other cells. This reaction can take several days to develop, and there is an accumulation of the mononuclear inflammatory cells and an exudation of tissue fluid which is the familiar edema.
Protective immunity is where the antibody reacts with an antigen so that it is unable to have any detrimental effect in the body. Protective immunity may be non-specific or specific. In humoral (or antibody mediated immunity) a search is made in the patient’s serum for the circulating antibody.
To summarize, there are two mechanisms that mediate specific immune response: those mediated by a cell product of the lymphoid tissues (humoral), and those mediated by specifically sensitized lymphocytes (cell mediated immunity).
Adaptive immunity, or acquired resistance, is based on the special properties of lymphocytes responding selectively to thousands of different “non self” materials (antigens). These lead to a specific memory permanently altering the pattern of response towards the antigens.
The adaptive immune response is the development of defense mechanisms in response to a particular (specific) stimulus. This usually results in the elimination of the microorganisms and subsequent recovery from illness often leaving the host with specific memory.
As the name implies, memory cells remember specific foreign cells or chemicals to which they have been exposed . They react immediately when they are exposed to those compounds. Vaccines are an example of drugs which effect memory cells. A vaccination is merely a method of stimulating the adaptive immune response and generating specific memory (acquired resistance) without getting the full-blown disease.
When the cells and molecules stimulate adaptive immune responses, for reasons which are unknown, the body’s own structures are attacked as if they were foreign. This is called autoimmune disease, or autoimmunity. A classic example of an autoimmune disease is Rheumatoid arthritis, where the white blood cells, particularly T-lymphocytes, respond to an antigen which may be located in a joint. The by products of the immune reaction inflame the synovia, which causes soreness and stiffness. Corrosive substances gradually eat away at the cartilage and joints. When the immune system is strong and in balance, gamma-interferon is released which enhances immunity.
Hypersensitivity is the result of specific memory that, instead of eliminating the antigens, has the unpleasant or damaging effects on the body’s own tissues.
The immune system originates primarily in the bone marrow and liver where white blood cells (leukocytes) are produced. These leukocytes circulate in the blood stream and the lymphatic system. They are the backbone of the immune system.
The lymph system is composed of millions of tiny ducts where white blood cells, nutrients, fluid and oxygen flows through the bloodstream to the tissues. The lymphoid organs create the lymphocytes, either T-cells, which mature in the thymus and are named for this organ, or B cells, which mature in bone marrow.
As mentioned these cells are the keystone of immunology. There are more than a billion leukocytes in the human body. In addition to being produced in the bone marrow, and liver, they are also found in the lymphatic tissue, the thymus, lymph nodes, spleen and tonsils. They are responsible for the specific resistance of the body to disease.
T-Cells and B-cells police the body for “non-self” material, as these cells have the ability to recognize individual antigens. Early in a person’s life the thymus is extremely important in the development of the immune system. At least half of the lymphocytes (T-cells) mature in the thymus. T-Cell lymphocytes help B-cell lymphocytes kill virus-infected cells. The lymph nodes which are found throughout the body contain phagocytes, lymphocytes, and macrophages. Macrophages engulf foreign particles (called phagocytosis). Phagocytes such as neutrophils and macrophages are the primary weapons in the immunological army.
Specific macrophages convey important information to the lymphocytes. The information obtained from the macrophages is passed on to the lymphoid tissue, the tissue from which lymphocytes and plasma cells are derived. Macrophages are vital to life as they permeate our entire bodies engulfing toxins. A stressful unhealthy lifestyle, ranging from unsuitable diets, to drug abuse, breathing chemical inhalants and smog, chemotherapeutics and numerous environmental toxins, can hinder macrophage function. In time, macrophage dysfunction creates an increase in metabolic residues which accumulate in the blood, lymph and tissues, and can turn into chronic disease.
Macrophages are specific monocytes in specific tissues. They are also the first line of defense of the lymphatic system. These monocytes are the garbage collectors and are larger white blood cells responsible for cleaning up cellular debris, as well as for the triggering of an immune response.
Macrophages produce a substance called Interleukin-I which leads to an increase in T-cells. The T-Cells then manufacture Interleukin-II which helps get the B-cells producing antibodies. Research has found Interleukin-II to be effective against cancer. Of the two most important kinds of lymphocytes, T-Cells are most responsible for detoxification of abnormal cells, and they can also recognize antigens of potential invader cells.
Lymphocytes and phagocytes release potent humoral substances, called lymphokines and monokines respectively, which are extremely effective overcoming antigens. The T-cells may also employ phagocytes to detoxify using lymphokines (messenger proteins) as communicators. Lymphokine activity can be regulated by hormones secreted by the adrenal glands (glucocorticoid), providing a bridge between the immune system and the central nervous system. An example of this is the adrenal-pituitary-hypothalamic axis. Interferon is an important type of lymphokine.
Among other lymphokines are the helper T-cells (a subset of the regular T cells), regulating the activities of the T cells. Suppressor cells are one of the regulating mechanisms for preventing the overactivity of the immune system. Other lymphokines are interleukins, lymphotoxins, and tumor necrosis factor.
Cytotoxic T-cells multiply and can attack invader cells directly. Natural killer cells (NK) are the body’s first line of defense against cancer development, as well as against viruses. Each killer cell is programmed to poison just one specific antigen or tumor cell. Mast cells are basophiles responsible for releasing histamine and other compounds involved in allergic reactions.
As seen in CFS (chronic fatigue syndrome) and AIDS, NK-cells are the scavengers of the immune system. They attack and kill anything that appears to be foreign, including the body’s own cells which might be infected with viruses or other disease causing agents. Natural killer cells are also essential in protecting against tuberculosis, but the TB bacillus disables the NK-cells. If a person’s NK cells are not working properly, then they are at a much increased risk for developing active TB.
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is specific in its attack and goes after the subset of T-lymphocytes, “helper” T-lymphocytes. In the AIDS syndrome, T-lymphocytes gradually disappear from both blood and lymph tissue. Again, it is in the T-cells where viruses and fungi are controlled, a function which unfortunately becomes defective in AIDS, allowing the opportunistic infections to fester.
Full blown AIDS is defined as opportunistic infections (secondary infections) and other problems develop. The most prevalent infection is parasitic pneumonia and Kaposi’s sarcoma. Common secondary infectious agents include, Epstein-Barr virus, Herpes simplex viruses, Herpes zoster, papovavirus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Salmonella, Candida albicans, and Toxoplasma gondii.
The T-cell count is usually below 200 before the opportunistic infections flourish. People can still survive this drop, and many live to see their T-Cell count drop below 50.3. Several AIDS patients have had their T-Cell counts go down to zero before the usually inevitable final infection or other complication occurs. At present writing, the time span between the loss of T-Cells and the first opportunistic infection is approximately two to three years until death.
The B lymphocytes secrete antibodies, the humoral element of adaptive immunity. Also, B-Cells may develop into any of a number of different kind of cells, i.e. red blood cells, various types of white blood cells, etc. B-cells are produced and mature not only in the bone marrow, but also around the intestines and, in the fetus, the liver.
Plasma cells are the product of B cells when confronted by antigens, as it is the function of plasma cells is to produce antibodies immediately. Antibodies ( called Immunoglobulin ) are proteins, not cells, and target viruses to render them helpless. There are nine different varieties of immunoglobulins some of which will be discussed in more detail in a later section. In general they are identified as: IgM, IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4, IgA1, IgA2, IgD, IgE.
Inflammation is the body’s natural way of responding to a localized invasion of microorganisms or to tissue injury. There are four basic stages of the inflammatory response: heat, swelling, reddening, and pain.
The first line of defense in the immune system is the skin, the mucous membrane, and the stomach, and involves mechanical and chemical intervention in those areas. The second line of defense involves phagocytosis and the complement factors.
The invasion of bacteria in the body can become dangerous to it, as they are potentially very pathogenic. The entire human race could be destroyed by a mere thousand grams of the toxin produced by the botulin bacterium.
Viruses are unique in that they are the simplest of existing life forms. They are a cluster of DNA and RNA in a protein sheath composed in part of nonliving and partly living matter. Found everywhere, they and can be absorbed, inhaled or ingested. Viruses need host cells, and particular viruses attack particular corporal cells. Interferon is the body’s general defense against viruses, preventing the virus from reproducing.
The HIV virus appears to be insidious because it attacks T-cells and is able to escape detection from the macrophages long enough to replicate a few billion times before bursting the host cell. Then it moves moving on to another group of T-cells to repeat the hide and seek “game”. This is why the T cell count can drop to zero allowing the secondary infections to occur. Parasitic infections, such as malaria and trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), can be masters at deceiving the immune system by changing their forms and “tricking” antibodies.
Occasionally a cell slips by the normal control factors and begins a course of uncontrolled division. The products of this activity form a malignant lump and begin to spread through the blood and lymph – cancer. Interferon, antibodies, complements, and NK cells all become activated when this lump develops, and T-cells are the body’s principal weapon of the defense against such cancerous tumors.
It is believed that cancer prevention is precluded by neutralizing the activity of free radicals (more on this later), particularly by the employment of antioxidants, which prevent their development. Unfortunately there is an imbalance of free radicals and antioxidants in cancer patients. The body’s exposure to pollution and toxins causes a slowed capacity to resist free radical infestation, and therefore can allow carcinogenic pathogens easy proliferation.
The respiratory tract is extremely important in the immune system integrity, because allergies caused by airborne particles can set off a false alarm, causing the immune system to react against itself. It is thought that asthma (which is increasing in this country) is the most troublesome of all allergic ailments.
In summary, the two most important weapons employed by the immune system are the lymphocytes: the T-cells, manufactured in the thymus, and B-Cells, manufactured in the bone marrow. They secrete antibodies which interlock with antigens – such as viruses, bacteria, fungus, parasites, etc. – and the secreted antibodies try to abolish the invader.
B-cells are able to produce specific antibodies and release them into the circulatory and lymphatic systems in search for specific enemies, almost whenever the body demands. The cells will detect the antigen and secrete the immunoglobulin (antibodies).
An antibody is shaped like a Y with a long leg at the bottom and claw-like arms. Substances carry a recognizable code (specific memory) for the antibody. If that code is missing on the exterior antibodies will engulf it assuming that it is a “non self” or foreign cell. An autoimmune disease may occur when the system mistakes a “self” for a non-self. When a foreign substance enters the body, such as a protein from a microbe, the offender (antigen) can elicit a response from the immune defense system. The antigen enters the body, and circulates through the filtration system, (the lymph nodes).
The antigens and antibodies join together and become immune complexes to fight bacteria, viruses, fungi, toxins, cellular debris, young cancer cells, and so on. Macrophages are stimulated to “chew up” offenders. However, chronic disease can occur if the macrophages are overloaded with toxic debris. T-Cells (which receive programming from the thymus) and B-Cells (which receive programming from bone marrow), form the “specific” defense system. The complement system is formed by the union of antibodies and antigens (immune complexes).