Key Concepts:
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An entire course could probably be developed around the topic of tools and techniques for supervision. The focus in this module will be on clinical or educational supervision, with a focus on worker development, because that is the function that is usually neglected. While this is understandable, it is unfortunate. If staff members believe the agency is sincerely interested in their growth as professionals, morale would be good and staff turnover would be reduced, saving the agency many resources in time and money in the long run.
To decide which tools and techniques are to be used and when requires an assessment of "where the counselor is" and his/her role context and responsibilities. Considering worker needs and client needs provides the context for how to approach supervision with any given staff. Powell, for example, identifies twelve core functions in the drug and alcohol field which provide a general framework for looking at counselor competencies. These include counseling, assessment, case management, crisis intervention, and others. He also suggests that such things as professional ethics, and working with incest and dual diagnosis could very well be added to the list.
Powell posits certain qualities that a counselor should possess such as empathy, unconditional positive regard, ability to be a catalyst for change, congruence, etc. Those qualities along with certain helping skills such as attending, probing, reflecting feelings, etc., in the context of the job demands and the worker's stage of professional development create the parameters for conscious use of tools and techniques. Just as we would never suggest that a good therapist or counselor use a technique with a client without a rationale based on clinical assessment, neither should a supervisor just assume that an appealing new idea gleaned from an article, this class, or a workshop should be automatically applied without assessment of the counselor and the job he/she is being expected to do. So with the above stated as a sort of caveat, this module will present some basic tools that are available to enhance supervision.
Munson presents two very important tools for supervision: educational or professional assessment and supervisory contracting. He also identifies several questions to help supervisees think about their sessions with clients. Some of these, I believe, are very useful. Asking the worker to consider what he/she likes about the client and what he/she speculates, the client likes about the supervisee can bring up a lot of useful information that might otherwise be missed. Also asking the supervisee to consider how he/she sees him/herself in the client can set the stage for looking at possible countertransference issues. Finally, Munson makes a very important point. I quote: "When supervisors accept that they cannot be responsible for the practitioner's performance, but are responsible only for clarifying the expected standards of performance, the door is opened to interaction that allows the supervisor and practitioner to engage in a process of genuine growth and development."
What are the distinctions between administrative and practice evaluations? How are they related?
People probably learn more from a supervisor by observing his/her behavior than any other way. Staff is quick to spot discrepancies between words and behavior so the importance of a supervisor as role model cannot be overstated. Like it or not, your staff is watching. If you treat staff the way you expect them to treat clients, and are open and honest with them as you expect them to be with you, it is much easier for staff to "partner" with you and respect you as someone they can learn with and from. This is not to imply that supervisors should strive to be perfect. En contraire! Supervisors make mistakes just like everyone else. It is the owning of one's responsibility for them, being honest about one's limits, and setting an example for taking care of oneself that are powerful positive influences on staff.
What are the basic ingredients for the supervisory contract?
Time management has almost become a cliché in today's pressure cooker work world, but supervisors and staff know that time management can make or break a professional in mental health and/or chemical dependency.
What are the ways you find to procrastinate and with what result? What secondary gain do you have in procrastination and what problems does it cause you professionally?
There are so many demands on all of us that to begin to even make sense of things it is incumbent on us to plan and organize our workload in some kind of reasonable time frame. Some of the frame is dictated or created by external forces, such as mandated deadlines, but some of the frame can be negotiated in supervision by helping staff set priorities, taking into consideration the holistic work situation and resources and skills of each staff as well as the agency bottom line. This in fact constitutes a more specific contract because the process clarifies expectations and both supervisor and worker are clear as to when specific tasks will be accomplished. It is important that supervisors be empathic with the demands on staff and help them recognize that they are doing a lot of things very well.
DiPadova and Faerman make several excellent points regarding time management. They emphasize that time management is life management or self-management, which includes "managing schedules, calendars, and everything from paper to attitudes to relationships." They indicate that time management is a personal responsibility, and means working smarter, not harder. Another important assumption in their article is that time management is a learned skill, and we are not born good time managers. In other words, we can assist our supervisees to develop good time management skills. In this regard, it is important to individualize staff, because there is no simple "one for all formula" for managing one's time proficiently.
In helping others to be organized, supervisors should be very sensitive to the number of meetings that are required for staff. Keeping the number of meetings to a minimum and keeping those to a limited amount of productive time presents a big challenge for supervisors/managers. For some reason, in the "helping professions" there are often far more required meetings than are really necessary to get the job done efficiently and well. Communicating clearly and listening carefully are supervisory skills that contribute significantly to good time management. Pay attention to the myths and the other suggestions that DiPadova and Faerman offer for your consideration. Some of them may surprise you.
Identify three meeting management techniques and discuss your experience as a staff member in meetings in your agency and your experience in chairing meetings. What have your learned that would have made both experiences more satisfying and productive?
What goals do you have for enabling you to work "smarter not harder"? For your staff?
Now for a word about supervisory liability. None of us really wants to consider the unhappy possibility that as supervisors we could be sued for the actions or lack thereof of the staff we are supervising. Paul Kurzman identifies six risks that exist in human service organizations which, if they are not addressed by agency management, could very well lead to litigation or claims of unethical practice. These include duty to warn and the duty to protect confidentiality among others. Reamer points out the importance of the availability of the supervisor, especially when a supervisee has been assigned a particularly difficult or intense client situation that calls for closer supervisory support, counsel, and monitoring. Risk management must be considered one more responsibility inherent in the role of supervisor. As a part of this reality, supervisors should document supervisory sessions. Documentation is necessary for performing meaningful and specific staff evaluations, of course, but it is also crucial as a protection in the event there is litigation or complaints are officially made against the agency or you as the supervisor. Malpractice insurance is mandated by most agencies, but if you do not for any reason carry malpractice insurance or your agency does not protect you with an "umbrella" policy, you are playing Russian roulette.
What recommendations would you make to your administrative superiors to enhance risk management for you and your agency?
Gardner, J.R. (1994) Supervision of Trainees: Tending the Professional Self. Clinical Social Work Journal, 23(3). 271-286.
This article seeks to demonstrate how self psychological concepts can be applied to the process of training supervisors and therapists in a variety of clinical and community settings.
Professionals often move to supervisory roles with little or no training. The goals of clinical supervision of therapists in training are to develop, consolidate, and maintain a cohesive professional self.
The central goal of self psychology's view of therapy is the strengthening of the self.
Supervisor and supervisee form a "self-self-object" unit through which the trainee's anxieties and vulnerabilities can be managed in the service of consolidating a cohesive professional self.
Supervisors must be empathetically aware of supervisee's needs. Supervisees view their supervisors in different ways, and also learn in different ways.
Supervision is a process and the needs of the supervisees constantly change and evolve.
In the early stages of training, much supervisory attention must be devoted to helping students deal with these frustrated needs for validation and efficacy.
Both supervisor and supervisee need to stay finely attuned to the process of affective resonance or attunement, which is when the feeling states aroused in the therapist provide valuable clues to the patient's internal state.
The parallel between the patient's experience and therapist's experience of the patient, as well as its diagnostic use, also extends to the relationship with the supervisor.
The supervisor must form an empathic alliance with the internal, subjective experience of the therapist. It is important to identify and understand the internal process within the student which led to a given intervention and to deal with that, rather than simply attending to the end product of what the student did.
Because the student therapist's need for affirmation and fear of criticism are both so high, it is helpful when the supervisor responds as much as possible to what the therapist is doing right.
It is also important to highlight for trainees the positive aspects of their behavior because often they are engaged in a very constructive process, but lack the conceptual tools to see or understand it as such.
What does the author mean by a "self-self-object" unit?
What are some reasons for the supervisor to highlight positive behavior done by the worker?
Munson, C. (1993). Techniques in supervision. In Clinical social work supervision. New York, NY: Haworth Press.
Assess what the new student or supervisee knows and what they need to learn.
Focus of educational assessment is aimed at a mutual evaluation of the goals of the learning experience.
Information that is basic to a good educational assessment:
Previous experience
Ethical awareness
Theoretical knowledge
Assessment and diagnosis
Organizational understanding
Agency functioning
Attitudes and values
Goals and objectives
Previous supervision
Learning impediments
Case material should be the focus of supervision _ in considering case material, supervisor should ensure practitioner reflection to help the supervisee gain comprehensive perspective of the case.
Variety of questions (provided in the reading) to help the practitioner think about future treatment sessions.
Case Presentations: Presentations can provoke anxiety which can be lessened when the practitioner is given adequate time to prepare.
Practitioner may have two fears:
Not meeting expectations
Losing existing autonomy
When supervisors accept that they cannot be responsible for practitioner's performance, but are responsible only for clarifying the expected standards of performance, the door is opened for interaction that allows the supervisor and practitioner to engage in a process of genuine growth and development.
The supervisor can help the practitioner who is struggling with a case by identifying with the client to assist the practitioner in understanding what the client may be experiencing and how the client may be responding.
Level of knowing can be divided into two types:
Technical skills: specific units of activity.
Perspective: understanding the relationship among sets of units of activity that allows comprehension of the whole.
Technical competence is possible without perspective and vice-versa.
It is important to promote both levels of knowledge for supervisors and practitioners.
Problems can arise when practitioner and supervisor are aiming at different levels of knowledge.
Practitioners should begin with technical skills and then move to perspective learning.
Supervision should have continuity.
A case should be presented sequentially, beginning with identification of patient dynamics and problems, a tentative diagnosis, alternative intervention strategies, selection of general intervention approach, and follow-up of the case.
Follow-up is most often the missing component but is very important _ when it is not done, the supervisor has no way of knowing if the efforts of a considerable amount of supervisory time were ever applied.
Only through identifying problems can supervisor and practitioner know that they have a comprehensive grasp of the client and his or her life situation and problem.
Four forms of patterns in the patient that can be identified and interrelated:
Patterns of personality or behavior
Patterns of life events and interaction
Patterns of interaction during a single treatment session
Patterns of the treatment process
Several factors to consider for supervisors interested in learning the mechanics of how to teach technique to practitioners:
Techniques cannot be taught in isolation.
Technique must be identified and taught as a series of actions.
Series of techniques should be arranged from simple to complex.
The supervisor who wants to learn how to teach technique should observe the teaching process.
Stop the interaction and focus on analyzing the meaning of the most recent interaction.
Withdraw temporarily and think of an alternate way to return to the difficult content.
Avoid admitting feeling uncomfortable or overwhelmed.
There will be times when supervisors' strategies fail to work - when encountered such difficulty, should shift to another strategy, and continue to shift techniques until they reach their objective.
"If-then" proposition is a good interactional technique to rely on.
Questioning is the chief technique supervisors use to help practitioners reflect about their own work.
Supervisors attempting to evaluate their questioning techniques should review tapes of supervisory sessions and evaluate their style of questioning on the basis of certain guidelines.
Must consider the power differential in supervision that affects the supervisee's ability to negotiate the contract. The supervisor must determine beforehand what areas are nonnegotiable because they are critical to learning.
The contract should include the procedures to be used if either party fails to meet the conditions of the contract.
Supervisors should frequently suggest that supervisees read books to supplement learning.
There are connections between readings and supervision or practice dynamics.
Promoting reading stimulates the development of a "self-directed" practitioner with a research orientation toward practice.
Supervisors should use reading to enhance their own learning as well.
Latent supervision refers to any aspect of the supervision in which the supervisor makes decisions or judgments about the practitioner's work in which the practitioner has no say, or of which he/she is unaware. This can lead the supervisor to make unsubstantiated and unjustified evaluations of the practitioner and his/her work.
In any evaluation or judgment, the supervisee should have fair opportunity to defend the action taken in the case or document its basis.
Latent supervision also occurs when a supervisor has a theoretical or philosophical perspective that the practitioner finds alien. This may indirectly foster discussion, which forces practitioner to present cases from the supervisor's preferred orientation.
The supervisor must monitor his/her own actions to ensure creativity, flexibility and adaptability.
At times supervisors may resist teaching what the practitioner needs to know _ often because of the time it would take to teach these things.
When this occurs, the supervisor should address it and make sure the information provided to the supervisee answers the questions raised.
What are the 10 basics for a good educational assessment? Why is this an important tool in supervision?
What are the two types of knowing?
Why is reading an important technique?
List five elements of good supervision. How do these fit with your ideas of good supervision?
Munson, C. (1993). Evaluation function of supervision. In Clinical Social Work Supervision, (pp. 203-209). Binghampton, NY: Haworth Press.
The emphasis of this chapter is on evaluation from the perspective of enhancing learning about practice.
Evaluation of learning is used here as the supervisor and practitioner jointly evaluate the practitioner's practice to enhance learning and, therefore, effectiveness in practice.
Error acceptance learning is a type of evaluation that is based on the fact that errors in practice are expected and known to occur, and the supervision process will be a search for such errors without punitive actions for the errors discovered.
Evaluation of learning in supervision must be kept simple in order to be applied effectively.
It is helpful to orient the practitioner to the fact that we all make mistakes in treatment.
It is the supervisor's role to help the practitioner overcome any failure to see the therapeutic relationship in a realistic way. Supervisors should identify ways that they themselves would have been confused or would have made mistakes in the same aspect of the treatment had they been the practitioner.
To help practitioners learn and grow, supervisors have to be critical of practitioners' work from time to time. Learning to give criticism effectively takes practice and skill.
Some helpful criticizing points:
To be helpful, criticism must draw a distinction between the behavior criticized and the individual involved.
When offering criticism the supervisor should avoid the words `should' and `shouldn't.'
Criticism is best focused on the positive and how it will help the practitioner.
It is important for the supervisee to select the treatment material that will be used in the supervision session and to prepare a self-assessment prior to the session.
What does the author mean by "evaluation by learning"?
Why are practice errors and criticism so important in supervision?
What are some techniques for helpful and nonthreatening criticism?
Powell, D. (1993). Basic supervisory techniques. In Clinical Supervision in Alcohol and Drug Abuse Counseling. (pp.147-171). New York, NY: Lexington Books.
The blended model of clinical supervision for the alcoholism and drug abuse field employs a variety of methods and techniques consistent with the assumptions and principles of the model.
If the supervisor is to have a consistent, accurate picture of the counselor, frequent observation over an extended period of time is essential.
Live observation is recommended wherever possible, and supervisors can use audio/videotapes, one-way mirrors, bug-in-the-ear, etc.
Videotape supervision is easy, accessible and relatively inexpensive. The supervisor must take care to use it as a constructive tool for learning.
Cofacilitation is when the supervisor sits in on an actual session with the supervisee, and it can be very useful.
Peer supervision is when a small group (2-6 people) engages in group supervision of one another and uses the techniques and methods of observation that a master supervisor would use.
Group supervision is when a supervisor oversees a trainee's professional development in a group of supervisee peers (4-6 people). There are many benefits to this type of supervision.
An important aspect of supervision is case presentation methodology.
In the blended model of supervision for the alcoholism and drug abuse field, the principal tasks of the supervisor are to observe the counselor's actions, determine their impact on the client, assess the counselor's clinical reasoning process, and help the counselor improve treatment delivery.
Role playing is ideal for practicing skills.
Role modeling is learning by watching an expert perform the task to be learned.
Demonstration is a presentation by an expert that displays and explains a procedure, followed by opportunities to discuss and practice the skills.
The twelve core functions include areas in which a counselor should be proficient.
Affective qualities are those which counselors should possess.
Helping skills are acquired through training.
Transference and countertransference occurs often and should be discussed with supervisees.
What are some ways to observe one's supervisee?
What are the three teaching techniques that can be used in supervision?
Kurzman, P. Managing risk in the workplace. In skills for effective human services management. (p. 267-279). Washington, DC: NASW Press.
Social workers are the largest professional group in the human services arena, and there is much concern among managers regarding the increased litigation among human service agencies and social work practitioners.
There are competing values that underpin any assessment of the effectiveness of an organization, and it is normal that conflicting interests compete for a manager's attention.
Recognition of, and a healthy respect for, the inevitable competing values can lead managers to a different use of self that may strike a proper balance among the several forces over time.
Six risks that are present in most social work agencies are:
Duty to warn if the client discloses intent to harm himself or herself or others.
Duty to keep confidential material that is shared with the agency and its practitioners in the course of the professional relationship.
Duty to ensure continuity of service to clients under care.
Duty to adequately record services provided.
Duty to diagnose and treat clients properly.
Duty to avoid sexual impropriety.
There are four major recommendations regarding risk management given by the authors:
The agency must have adequate insurance that covers the premises, agency professional liability, officers and directors, vehicular insurance, bonding for all officers and staff who have the authority to sign contracts or manage the agency's income and assets.
Every agency should establish legal counsel in the same way it sets up an ongoing relationship with an accountant or psychiatric consultant.
The agency should plan ongoing staff training sessions that help to send the message to the staff that organizational issues are everyone's concern.
Have experts conduct a periodic program and management audit to ensure that risks are being properly managed.
What are some possible risks that can be found in social work agencies?
Describe two ways of managing risks in social work agencies.
DiPadova, L.N., & Faerman, S.R. Managing time in the organizational setting. In Skills for Effective Human Services Management.
Research indicates that managers identify time-management problems as their greatest source of stress. A tendency to compare oneself unfavorably with other people who appear well organized and accomplished and focusing on shortcomings instead of strengths fosters discouragement, which then inhibits the energy needed to make changes. Self-management includes managing schedules, calendars, and everything from paper to attitudes to relationships.
The following assumptions are the basis of this chapter:
Time management is a personal responsibility.
Improving time-management skills means increasing the ability to accomplish more in less time by working smarter, not harder.
Time management is a learned skill.
Time management for managers differs from time management for non-managers.
Time management is individualized, as everyone approaches his or her work and responsibilities in a different way.
Five Myths of Time Management: (Supervisors should recognize and reject these myths.)
Being busy means being productive.
Only upper management can make the important decisions.
The best decisions are the delayed decisions.
The quicker things are done, the better.
It takes too much time to delegate.
Procrastination:
Procrastination develops when tasks are habitually postponed until the last minute, causing considerable suffering and anxiety in the interim.
Individuals procrastinate to avoid inner conflicts and to protect self-esteem. For example, procrastinating important tasks may reflect a basic fear of failing to perform perfectly.
Individuals tend to use procrastination to assert a measure of control over their lives. But procrastination is a prescription for the loss of control, rather than the gaining of control.
Organize yourself by keeping one calendar with work and personal combined .
Keep a daily to-do list and make this list and your calendar an integral part of your day.
At work, reduce the information overload by having two file folders labeled `Action' and `To File'.
Schedule interruptions by having an open-door policy during certain periods of time.
Help others to be organized by doing things such as managing meetings carefully and efficiently.
How does procrastination affect managers?
What are the two techniques for managing time suggested by the authors?
Reamer, F.G. (1989). Liability Issues in Social Work Supervision. Social Work, 34(5), 445-448.
Supervision is recognized widely as a central role in social work practice.
In reviewing the literature, the author found that one important aspect of the supervisory role has been neglected, which is the liability risks faced by the social work supervisor.
As the domain of social work supervision has expanded, so have the liability risks that accompany the supervisor-supervisee relationship.
Because of a variety of factors, such as increasingly complex and intrusive treatment technology, increasing criticism of professional authority, and vague relations, liability suits are increasing.
There are many areas of potential liability for social work supervisors, such as: the actions of supervisees who ordinarily are directly under their supervision, the actions of supervisees who are not ordinarily under the social worker's supervision, and the delegation of responsibility of the social worker to a paraprofessional or unlicensed assistant.
Special liability concerns arise with respect to field supervision of social work students. There is little consensus about which parties are primarily liable if a student causes some form of harm during the field placement.
A good working relationship between the supervisor and supervisee is essential, and many problems can be avoided if there is close, constructive collaboration. Supervisors must give special attention to the frequency and scheduling of supervision.
Social work agencies should conduct training sessions with line staff which include professional ethics, liability issues, and emergency assistance and suicide prevention.
What are some of the potential liability risks for social work supervisors?
Bernard, J.M., & Goodyear, R.K. The individual case conference methods and techniques. Fundamentals of Clinical Supervision. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon
A supervisor's choice of supervision method is influenced by a number of factors both rational and irrational.
Six reasons for choosing different supervision methods:
The supervisee's learning goals.
The supervisee's experience level and developmental issues.
The supervisee's learning style.
The supervisor's goals for the supervisee.
The supervisor's theoretical orientation.
The supervisor's own learning goals for the supervisory experience.
The three general functions of supervision interventions are:
Assessing the learning needs of the supervisee.
Shaping or supporting the supervisee's behavior.
Evaluating the performance of the supervisee.
An ideal supervisor is someone who is creative yet demonstrates critical thinking. One issue endemic to all supervision situations is the challenge to think like a supervisor rather than a therapist. Seasoned practitioners tend to continue to be fascinated with therapy issues, thus focusing on client issues rather than the learning and developmental needs of their supervisees.
Three conceptual tasks that should be addressed in the supervision conference:
Identify how observations and inferences are used to provide the evidence for clinical judgments.
Describe and discuss major dimensions of the therapeutic relationship.
Methods that supervisors can use:
Self-reports are only as good as the observational and conceptual abilities of the supervisee and the seasoned insightfulness of the supervisor. It offers many opportunities for failure if it represents the complete supervision plan.
Video and audio tape sessions offer many useful techniques for supervision.
Live observation offers many advantages, but is not utilized very often.
Supervisors should expand their repertoire and also systematically study their methods and techniques.
What are the three general functions of supervision interventions?
What are the three conceptual tasks that should be addressed in supervision?
Erera, I. P. (1991). Supervisors can burn out too. The Clinical Supervisor, 9(2), 131-145.
There have been a lot of studies on burnout among direct care practitioners, but not many on those in management. This study is trying to show that persons other than the classic candidates can also experience burnout.
Burnout is a particular type of stress reaction and some outcomes of burnout are low morale, job dissatisfaction, absenteeism, high turnover and deterioration in the quality of service.
According to the literature, occupational stress and management, role conflict and role ambiguity are widely recognized as major work-related stressors.
Role conflict is often prevalent among middle level managers. Role ambiguity is defined as the discrepancy between information available to the person and that which is required for adequate performance of his/her role. This is often prevalent in public organizations, presumably because they are governed by ambiguous policies.
The study's findings indicate that supervisors, performing as middle level managers, may also experience burnout.
One similarity between the supervisors and line workers is that both represented high levels of burnout, and both experienced depersonalization.
A difference between line workers and supervisors is that the supervisors did not show high levels of emotional exhaustion as the line workers did.
For the supervisors, the primary origin of all three burnout dimensions was organizational policies, perceived to be extremely ambiguous and incompatible.
This study shows that burnout should be viewed as more than the result of dealing with clients.
List some major work-related stressors discussed in the article.
How does burnout affect supervisors in the social service field?
What are your greatest assets as a professional? How would you use them differently in a supervisory position?
What is helpful about an evaluation process for supervisor and worker?
Suggest some ways you would like to change the evaluation process with your supervisees.
General comments, thoughts:
What have you developed from your practice experience in the way of managing your professional responsibilities that has been most useful, effective for you?
What tools or techniques have you come to appreciate as a supervisor/supervisee?
How do you take care of yourself as a social worker? How is this relevant to supervision?
What has been most valuable to you in the course? Least valuable? Suggestions?
General comments, thoughts:
What are the distinctions between administrative and practice evaluations? How are they related?
What are the basic ingredients for the supervisory contract?
What are the ways you find to procrastinate and with what result? What secondary gain do you have in procrastination and what problems does it cause you professionally?
Identify three meeting management techniques and discuss your experience as a staff member in meetings in your agency and your experience in chairing meetings. What have your learned that would have made both experiences more satisfying and productive?
What goals do you have for enabling you to work "smarter, not harder"? For your staff?
What recommendations would you make to your administrative superiors to enhance risk management for you and your agency?
Supervision of Trainees Study Questions
What does the author mean by a "self-self-object" unit?
What are some reasons for the supervisor to highlight positive behavior done by the worker?
Techniques in Supervision Study Questions
What are 4 out of the 10 basics for a good educational assessment? Why is this an important tool in supervision?
What are the two types of knowing?
Why is reading an important technique?
Evaluation of Practice Study Questions
What does the author mean by `evaluation by learning'?
Why are practice errors and criticism so important in supervision?
What are some techniques for helpful and nonthreatening criticism?
Basic Supervisory Techniques Study Questions
What are some ways to observe one's supervisee?
What are three teaching techniques that can be used in supervision?
Managing Risk in the Workplace Study Questions
What are some possible risks that can be found in social work agencies?
Describe two ways of managing risks in social work agencies.
Managing Time in the Organizational Setting Study Questions
How does procrastination affect managers?
What are two techniques for managing time suggested by the authors?
Liability Issues in Social Work Supervision Study Questions
Why has the liability risk increased in the social work field?
What are some of the potential liability risks for social work supervisors?
The Individual Case Conference Methods and Techniques Study Questions
What are three general functions of supervision interventions?
What are the three conceptual tasks that should be addressed in supervision?
Supervisors Can Burn Out Too Study Questions
List some major work -related stressors discussed in the article.
How does burnout affect supervisors in the social service field?