What Is Stress ?

Ask a group of people "What is stress?" and you will get plenty of answers. Some people will talk about sources of stress: to them stress is writing a paper, having too much work to do, or getting into an argument with a friend. Others will describe emotions such as tension, anxiety, feeling out of control, or being overwhelmed. Some will add physical symptoms to the list: to them stress means a headache, painful muscle tension in the neck and shoulders, or sleeplessness. A few might talk about behavioral effects, things they do when stressed, like biting their nails, eating too much, or procrastinating.

     Responses to "What is stress?" usually carry a negative connotation, although some people will acknowledge that stress motivates them to get their work done and even to perform better. A few will actually admit to enjoying the "adrenaline rush" of impending deadlines, or being in a high-pressure situation such as a job interview or an athletic event.

THE STRESS CYCLE

These answers are all part of the definition of stress. People generally use the word stress to describe that feeling of anxiety and physical tension that occurs when demands placed on them exceed their abilities to cope (Monat & Lazarus, 1991). Stress usually begins with some sort of stimulus, called a stressor A stressor is anything that causes stress. Stressors may be real (a vicious dog), distortions of something real (a friendly dog that you perceive as vicious), or purely imaginary (fear of walking in a new neighborhood because a vicious dog might appear).

     Your reaction to stressors is called the stress response, and it consists of physical and psychological components. Physically, your body responds to the source of stress by preparing to fight or run away-the famous "fight-or-flight" response. Your heart beats faster and harder, blood pressure rises, muscles brace for action, breathing becomes shallower and more rapid: it's almost like you're exercising while standing still.

     Psychologically, your thoughts and feelings interact with your physical arousal. Words, phrases, and images may pop into your head. If they are negative ("I can't take it. Why me? I hate this job"), they may exacerbate your physical stress response. More positive thoughts ("I've done it before, I can do it again. I can work through this") may help reduce the fight-or-flight response. And sometimes you may be too busy coping to think! You may be immersed in what you're doing and not be aware of any thoughts at all.

Your stress response is made up of many feelings. Sometimes you may feel chalenged, stimulated, excited, and even happy, especially if you perceive the stressor to be something you have some control over, and if you expect a mostly positive outcome (Dienstbier, 1991; Funk, 1992; Nowack, 1991; Sheppard & Kashani 1991). When your stress reaction is more negative in tone, you are apt to feel anxious, frightened, helpless, or depressed. Your feelings and thoughts are inextricably intertwined (Lazarus, 1991). Positive thoughts create positive feelings. When you're feeling good, you're more apt to see things in a positive light and have positive thoughts. Thoughts and feelings affect, and are affected by, your physical response to stress as well. When your heart is pounding and your breathing is shallow you may become more anxious. In other words, while teachers and researchers may separate physical and psychological responses in their discussions of the stress cycle, body and mind work together in real life (Moyer, 1993; Seaward, 1994).

    Your perceptions of stressors and your perceptions of your abilities to cope with them are an important part of the stress cycle. Your perceptions can create sources of stress out of thin air, as in the fear of imaginary vicious dogs. They can also turn a minor source of stress, such as completing a school assignment, into a cause for panic; you may make mountains out of molehills. You may perceive the assignment to be more difficult than it really is and yourself as incapable of completing it. Sometimes you may worry for days about an assignment that, in the end takes only two or three hours and isn't so difficult after all. On the other hand, you may overestimate your competence or underestimate the demands of a given assignment; you may not give the task the time or attention it truly demands, thus creating stress far beyond that inherent in the assignment.

COPING

Another important component of the stress cycle is coping-what you do to deal with the source of stress. Coping strategies may be categorized in several useful ways

    Direct coping, also called problem-focused coping (Monat & Lazarus, 1991), is always the first step in alleviating stress. When you try to eliminate or change the source of stress, you are using direct coping. Problem solving is the most common form of direct coping. Suppose you're worried about a paper that is due next week. The best way to deal with this type of stress is to get started! Come up with some possible topics, and then go to the library and begin looking for some sources.

 

When you do something to relax and feel less stressed, you are using palliative or emotion-focused coping.

    Sometimes you still feel stressed, even after you have done all you can to confront the problem. You've started the paper but you still feel worried. When you do something to relax and feel less stressed, you are using palliative coping, also called emotion-focused coping. Examples of palliative coping methods include talking to a friend, going for a walk, and listening to music.

    Coping responses may have positive or negative effects on the source of stress and on the stress cycle in general. Adaptive coping responses have a generally positive effect and help reduce feelings of stress. Madadaptive coping strategies may help you feel better immediately but can create more problems down the road. Procrastinating in writing that paper might help you avoid feeling stressed tonight but may create worse stress in a few days. Dealing with stress by abusing alcohol might feel good initially but waking up with a hangover makes that paper look more difficult than ever the next morning.

    Both direct and palliative coping responses may be classified as adaptive or maladaptive. Such categorization is almost always situational, as a response that proves helpful for one stressor might not work in another situation. A response that is usually adaptive, such as talking to a friend or exercising, can be maladaptive if it causes you to avoid confronting the source of stress or if it is done in excess. Nevertheless, let's consider a hypothetical stressor for the purposes of illustration. You're concerned about a paper you are writing, and would like some help to be sure you're on the right track. Possible direct and palliative coping responses, both adaptive and maladaptive, are listed in Figure 1.1 (p. 4).

HEALTH BEHAVIOR AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES: THE CONTEXT OF STRESS

Have you ever lost control of yourself over something trivial, something that usually would not bother you very much? Maybe you spill your drink and fly into a rage or burst into tears. Something you can handle easily on a good day can be unbearable on a bad day. This is because your stress response is affected by many extraneous factors.

    Some of these factors are health behaviors-things you do that affect your health. Eating, sleeping, and exercise habits are examples of health behaviors, as are cigarette smoking, drug use, and alcohol and caffeine consumption. All these affect your stress level. A given stressor might have a very different effect depending on whether you feel alert and rested after a good night's sleep or fatigued and strung out after staying up all night. You might drink several cups of coffee to stay alert to study but find you are merely stressed: tired and wired at the same time, unable either to concentrate or to fall asleep.

    To a large extent, many health behaviors are under your control. Other less controllable factors also affect your stress cycle, illustrated in Figure 1.2. Health problems are an example. People usually feel less capable of coping with stress if they are battling a cold or a headache. An unexpected chore at the end of a long, hard day may seem impossible; the same task would be easy when you're full of energy and things are going well.

    Many environmental factors influence your stress cycle as well: the type and level of noise in the room, the comfort or discomfort of your work area, the stress levels of those around you, and the current political and economic climate. Even too much cloudy weather can exacerbate stress for some people.

 

¾STUDENT  STRESS
	ANGELA'S STRESS CYCLE Angela's first assignment in her stress management class was to complete a stress cycle diagram for a source of stress in her life and to categorize coping responses for that problem. Angela decided that the situation bothering her most wasn't a single event but an ongoing one that was starting to occur several evenings each week. Monica, a new friend, would drop by after dinner to chat. Sometimes they would just tell each other about the day, then get back to their schoolwork. That was fun for both young women. They found they had much in common and agreed about many things.     But lately Monica was staying longer and longer,sometimes for an hour or two. Monica's mother had just been diagnosed with breast cancer, and her family was experiencing financial difficulties as well. "Monica seems to be coping with her stress by talking to me," Angela thought to herself as she started completing her stress cycle assignment. "But what about me?" Angela, a hard-working and very conscientious student, was falling behind in her schoolwork and in her sleep, as she stayed up later and later to complete her assignments. Several evenings she had prepared herself to tell Monica she needed to cut down on her socializing, but inevitably Monica would burst in, upset about a phone conversation with her mother or other problems she was having, and Angela would not have the heart to interrupt. "I'll tell her tomorrow," she would think to herself, but tomorrow never came.     Angela decided to think about her response to Monica's visit the previous night, a particularly stressful one. Her stress cycle and coping response diagram are shown in Figure 1.3.     Angela found the assignment constructive be cause, as she categorized her coping responses, she realized that her only direct response, trying politely to wrap up the conversation, was not effectively addressing her problem. Her other coping techniques seemed to be prolonging her problem by making her a passive listener, behavior that Monica interpreted as that of an interested friend. Angela decided to discuss the problem directly with Monica, letting Monica know she could talk during dinner, but that on weeknights after dinner Angela had to spend more time studying. Angela also decided to go to the library to study, where there would be fewer interruptions.
	FIGURE 1.3 Angela's Stress Cycle

 

¿ STRESS AND YOU

YOUR STRESS CYCLE  You probably have a fairly good idea about the kinds of things that cause you stress and about your stress response patterns. Take a moment to consider a recent event that caused you to feel stressed. How did you respond? Complete the stress cycle in Figure 1.4 to see how this diagram illustrates the stress in your life. Use the coping chart (Figure 1.5) to categorize your coping responses.

FIGURE 1. 5 Your Coping Responses

How do you cope with stress? Think about a significant source of stress in your life. Draw a chart like the one above. Can you think of direct and palliative coping strategies, both adaptive and maladaptive? Which are you most likely to use? 

IS STRESS A BAD THING?

Most people associate the word stress with a negative context. They are more likely to think of stress in connection with getting fired than getting promoted, with getting divorced than getting married, with distress rather than eustress (positive stress) (Selye, 1974). Sometimes people use stress to mean excess stress: too much happening. Small hassles that in themselves might not be very bothersome become stressful when time or energy is in short supply (Kanner et al., 1981).

    Given this association, it is easy to forget that an appropriate stress response is often helpful. Stress motivates you to produce works you are proud of, it helps you rise to meet challenges, and it inspires you as you write an exam or paper. The physical and psychological arousal of the stress response can be very useful, and unless you are overloaded and become chronically aroused and "stressed out," stress is not necessarily harmful (Kobasa et al., 1982). You'll hear more about the health effects of stress in Chapter 3, but most readers will be reassured to learn that unless you spend your time feeling angry, a moderate amount of stress does not appear to be hazardous to your health, as long as it is accompanied by some sense of control and expectations of primarily positive outcomes and is balanced by periods of re laxation (Williams & Williams, 1994).

WHAT IS STRESS MANAGEMENT?

Management implies that you have some control. The goals of stress managemet are to increase your understanding of yourself and your own stress cycle and to help you exercise what control you do have over this cycle. Classes in stress management help you develop techniques that will enhance your ability to cope effectively with stress and increase your resistance to its negative effects. Even small changes in the way you breathe, organize your day, or interpret events around you can significantly improve your sense of control and reduce your feelings of being overwhelmed by life.

    Stress management is about intervention (see Figure 1.7, p. 10). You will learn many ways to interrupt habitual stress response patterns that increase feelings of stress. After you step back and observe your own stress cycle, you will become aware of ways you can intervene at each point in the cycle, such as these:

1.  By addressing stressors more directly-changing or eliminating sources of stress whenever possible and solving problems more effectively. Section II of this book presents a variety of approaches that can reduce and eliminate sources of stress common in the lives of college students. Included in this section are techniques to help you improve your problem-solving ability, clarify your goals, organize your time, and communicate more effectively. In Section III you learn how to develop a healthful, joyful, stress-resistant lifestyle.

2.  By developing more accurate perceptions of stressors. and your own abilities so that you do not blow things out of proportion or underestimate your own strengths. In Section IV you examine the way you look at life and try to tune in to your automatic thoughts to uncover any habitual thought patterns that might be creating unnecessary stress. Self-esteem and personality styles are also discussed.

3.  By changing your physical and psychological response to stress. Section V presents relaxation techniques to help you decrease feelings of stress and increase self-awareness. Relaxation practice helps reduce unwanted physical and psychological arousal that can lead to headaches, stomachaches, and other stress-related orders. You can learn that you do not need to respond to perceived stress by hunching your shoulders, gritting your teeth, or tensing your forehead muscles. You'll be able to short-circuit negative thinking that leads to feelings of panic and anxiety. You will practice sensing an unnecessary stress response before it develops into a health problem.

    As you come to understand your personal stress cycle, you will reinforce all those effective coping techniques that you currently use and use them more often. You will be able to make better decisions about health behaviors that influence your stress level and spend more of your time feeling good about yourself and satisfied with life.

WHAT STRESS MANAGEMENT IS NOT

Stress management is not a substitute for medical treatment. If you experience physical symptoms that you believe are related to stress, such as frequent headaches, stomachaches, or high blood pressure, check with your physician before you embark on your stress management program. Many symptoms may be indicative of something other than stress. If your physician believes your symptoms are related to stress, then stress management and relaxation techniques may be helpful. These techniques should always be used in conjunction with appropriate medical care.

    Stress management may be a complement to, but not a substitute for, professional counseling. There are times when almost everyone can benefit from some sort of therapy. Psychologists, social workers, chaplains, and others can assist when you're having difficulty finding your way and help point you in a more productive direction. If you are experiencing a significant amount of stress, are unsure of how to cope with a particularly difficult situation, are feeling very anxious or depressed a lot of the time, you would probably benefit from some sort of therapy.

    Many people feel that going to a counselor indicates that they have somehow failed, or that there is something "wrong" with them. We tend to believe we should follow the American model of the "rugged individualist" and be able to solve problems on our own. In fact, deciding to seek professional guidance does not mean you are mentally ill or impaired; it simply means you have decided to maximize your potential using the resources at hand. For many problems, short-term counseling is most beneficial. As few as six to ten visits may help you see a problem more clearly and solve it more effectively. At other times, long-term counseling may be desirable when you are dealing with more difficult issues.

    Stress management is effective but it is not magic. Changing the way you view the world and yourself, your style of communication, and your organization and time management as well as reducing your physical responses to stress occur slowly and with practice. Stress management is not instant self-transformation. Some wishful students enroll in a stress management program to learn how to get rid of stress. They hope that after completing the program their lives will be totally stress free. This goal is neither feasible nor desirable. After all, stress is the spice of life. And no one, except perhaps characters in Harlequin romances, lives happily ever after. Real life is a mixture of good and bad, joy and sorrow. Tragedy is real (but hassles are often imaginary). While you cannot turn the world into a rose garden, you can reduce excess stress and find more satisfaction in life. You can enjoy more fully the roses that are there while learning how to deal more effectively with the thorns.

WELLNESS AND STRESS MANAGEMENT

Stress management is the cornerstone of a wellness lifestyle. The wellness philosophy supports the notion that the lifestyle choices you make throughout the years have an important influence on your mental and physical well-being. Wellness means doing what you can to maximize your personal potential for optimal well-being, and to construct a meaningful and rewarding life. It is a process rather than a product, a means rather than an end. You lead a wellness lifestyle when you live in a purposeful way that helps you achieve self-fulfillment.

While disease prevention is an important goal of the wellness lifestyle, wellness implies more than a state of good health. Wellness means taking responsibility for your health, preventing accidents and illness, and knowing when to consult and work with health care professionals. Wellness encourages consumer awareness and promotes the establishment of social systems and environments conducive to health-promoting behavior (Cowen, 1994). Paradoxically, disease and disability do not prevent a wellness lifestyle, for wellness simply means doing the best with the hand you've been dealt.

    The wellness concept developed in response to the old notions that health has to do with a person's physical state and that people are healthy so long as they are not sick (Ardell, 1984). The word wellness was first used by a medical doctor, Halbert Dunn, in the 1950s. In his book High Level Wellness he used the concept of wellness to describe physical, emotional, psychological, and spiritual well-being, noting the interrelation of these areas (Dunn, 1961).

FIGURE 1.8 Components of Wellness

The wellness philosophy promotes a healthful, fulfilling lifestyle to maximize personal potential in all areas of your life. Stress management enhances your ability to make choices that promote personal growth and physical, emotional, occupational, intellectual, social, and spiritual well-being.

    Wellness implies a state beyond the simple absence of sickness; in this context, people are viewed as holistic organisms. An illustration of the components of wellness is given in Figure 1.8. While this figure artificially separates wellness into sections, it portrays the idea that all parts of a person are important in the wellness concept. If you are not satisfied with your career (part of intellectual wellness), this dissatisfaction must be balanced by wellness in other areas or changed so that other areas are not thrown off balance. These components work together to create something greater than the sum of their parts.

    Proponents of wellness believe that given appropriate information, people can make informed choices, directed by a sense of self-love and self-responsibility (Travis & Ryan, 1988). Wellness and stress management both involve a process of assessment, intervention, and reassessment. You might, for example, discover that trying to function on four hours of sleep per night is leaving you cranky, fatigued, sick, and stressed. You assess the way you spend your time and intervene by getting rid of certain obligations, minimizing "wasted" time, watching only your very favorite television shows, and reorganizing your study schedule, trying to increase your night's sleep to a more reasonable length. After several days, you reassess the changes you've made and make other changes as necessary.

    Many students with only occasional periods of problematic stress wonder whether stress management will benefit them. Like wellness, stress management is for everyone, the enlightened as well as the overloaded. Stress management is not only for dealing with problems; it also improves your ability to participate in life joyfully, to get the most out of each day.

    Unlike many subjects, stress is familiar to us all. To most of us stress, if not a friend, is a constant companion. Almost every college student is an expert on stress. You arc already handling many sources of stress very effectively. You are organizing your schedule, completing challenging assignments, getting involved with extracurricular activities, and developing friendships. Some of you are balancing the demands of school, families, and careers. Stress management will help you build on this success, expand your relaxation repertoire, and perhaps help others along the way. As you continue your stress management journey, remember that wellness is not a station at which you will someday arrive but a way of traveling.

SUMMARY

1. The stress cycle is composed of a source of stress (stressor) and your response to that stressor. Your stress response consists of physical and psychological reactions.

2. Your perceptions of stressors and your perceptions of your abilities to meet the demands placed on you by those stressors play an important role in your personal stress response patterns.

3. Coping is what you do to deal with stressors and your feelings of stress. Direct (problem-focused) coping methods attempt to eliminate or change the source of stress. Palliative (emotion-focused) coping methods do not directly affect the stressor but help you cope with your feelings of stress.

4. Adaptive coping responses have a generally positive effect on the stress cycle, either lessening the force of the stressor itself or helping you to feel less stressed over both the short and long term. Madadaptive coping strategies may help you feel better initially but may create more problems down the road. 

5. Health behaviors and environmental factors have an important effect on the stress cycle.

6. Stress is not always harmful. It can provide motivation and excitement as well as the appropriate level of arousal to help you perform well.

7. The goals of stress management are to increase your understanding of yourself and your own stress cycle and to help you change this cycle so that stress is more productive and positive experience.

8. Stress management improves your ability to cope with stress by teaching techniques to help you (1) address stressors more directly, (2) develop a more curate and positive perception of stressors and your abilities to cope with them and (3) learn to relax and change your physical and psychological response to stress so that they are less harmful to your health.

9. Stress management is not a substitute for medical treatment of physical or psychological problems.

10. Stress management is the cornerstone of a wellness lifestyle. The wellness philosophy states that lifestyle choices you make throughout the years have an important impact on your mental and physical well-being and your quality of life

11. The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that for every task there is an optimal level of arousal for peak performance.

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