Food Habits and Their Relationship to Dietary Guidelines

The Mexican diet of today is rich in a variety of foods and dishes that represent a blend of pre-Columbian, Spanish, French and, more recently, American culture. The typical Mexican diet is rich in complex carbohydrates, which are provided mainly by corn and corn products, beans, rice, and breads. The typical Mexican diet contains an adequate amount of protein in the forms of beans, eggs, fish and shellfish, and a variety of meats, including beef, pork, poultry, and goat. Because of the extensive use of frying as a cooking method, the Mexican diet is also high in fat. The nutrients most likely to be inadequately provided are calcium, iron, vitamin A, folacin, and vitamin C.

Eating Practices, Food Preferences and Food Preparation Techniques

Traditionally, Mexicans ate four or five meals daily. The foods eaten varied with factors such as income, education, urbanization, geographic region, and family customs. The extent to which the traditional Mexican meal pattern continues among Mexicans in the United States has not been systematically studied. The three-meal pattern prevails, although whether or not the major meal of the day occurs in mid-afternoon is unclear. The daily meal pattern in the typical Mexican-American home varies according to the availability of traditional foods and the degree of assimilation into American society.

With emigration to the United States, major changes occur in the Mexican-American’s diet. Healthy changes include a moderate increase in the consumption of milk, vegetables, and fruits, and a large decrease in the consumption of lard and Mexican cream. The introduction of salads and cooked vegetables has increased the use of fats, such as salad dressings, margarine, and butter. Other less healthy changes include a severe decline in the consumption of traditional fruit-based beverages in favor of high-sugar drinks. Consumption of inexpensive sources of complex carbohydrates, such as beans and rice, also has decreased as a result of acculturation. In addition to the negative impact on the health of this population, these dietary changes also may adversely affect the family’s budget when low-priced foods are replaced with more expensive ones.

Clinical studies have consistently reported a high prevalence of obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, dental caries, and over/under nutrition in the Mexican-American population. Overweight and obesity are higher in Hispanic women and children. Research also indicates that Mexicans in the United States eat more meat and saturated fats than Anglos, and use fewer low-fat dairy products. Mexicans also are less likely to recognize high-fat foods. Approximately 10 to 12 percent of Mexican-American adults have diabetes, with 95 percent of those having the non-insulin-dependent type.

Teaching Implications

Health care providers need to understand Hispanic culture, beliefs, norms, food practices, and terminology to assist clients. Providers need to support and stimulate the preservation of healthy cultural food practices among Mexican-American clientele. When appropriate, suggest modifications of traditional dishes that are high in sodium, fat, and sugar. Increase clients’ knowledge of healthy food selections from typical American fare. Gain support from clients’ families to enhance their acceptability of the diet.

The diets of pregnant Mexican-American women of marginal social and economic standing are deficient in dietary iron, vitamin A, and calcium. Encourage the consumption of low-fat cheeses, lean red meat, fresh fruits, and vegetables. Monitor beverage intake, as carbonated soft drinks and presweetened drinks are widely consumed. Breastfeeding is widely practiced in Mexico, although most Mexican-Americans use infant formula. Weaning children from the bottle at one year of age is not widely practiced. Baby bottle tooth decay is common in toddlers, suggesting that the child is put to bed with a bottle.

The health care provider may intervene with Hispanic clients and communities in culturally sensitive ways, which includes viewing culture as an enabler rather than a resistant force, incorporating cultural beliefs into the plans of care, stressing familialism, and taking time for pleasant conversation.

REFERENCES 

Caudle, P. (1993). Providing Culturally Sensitive Health Care to Hispanic Clients. Nurse Practitioner, Volume 18:12.

Delpapa, R., Mayer, J., et al (1990). Food Purchases Patterns in a Latino Community: Project Salsa. Journal of Nutrition Education, June, 133-35.

Romero-Gwynn, E., Gwynn, D., et al (1992). Dietary Changes Among Latinos of Mexican Descent in California. California Agriculture. Volume 46:4.

Mexican American Food Practices, Customs, and Holidays (1989). American Dietetic Association.

Additional resources addressing cultural diversity in nutrition education:

Cross-Cultural Counseling: A Guide for Nutrition and Health Counselors (FNS 250). U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Kittler, P. and Sucher, K. (1989). Food and Culture in America. Van Nostrand & Reinhold, 1989.

Nutrition, Food, and Culture. National Livestock and Meat Board, Chicago, Illinois.

Source: Ohio State University Extension Fact Sheet
http://ohioonline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/5000/5255.html

The Puerto Rican culture includes people whose ancestors and possibly current extended family members are from the Caribbean island of Puerto Rico. Their original language is Spanish. Under Spanish rule and then under American rule, Puerto Rico has never been an independent nation. Puerto Ricans are American citizens and can legally enter and leave the mainland. Migration flows circularly between the island of Puerto Rico and the mainland. Because of this circular migration, elements of both cultures thrive in both places, and a specific Puerto Rican "cultural type" is difficult to describe.

Food Habits and Their Relationship to Dietary Guidelines

The typical Puerto Rican diet has many positive aspects. This diet is high in complex carbohydrates such as breads, cereals, soda crackers, rice, and corn meal.

A typical diet also includes some calcium and milk products. Adult women will drink milk in cafe con leche (coffee with milk) and consume calcium in flan (custard).

Incomplete proteins, such as those found in legumes, rice, and beans, are often eaten. Meats eaten include chicken, pork sausage, turkey, beef, pork chops, spare ribs, and marinated pork. Fish is eaten, but in quantities smaller than other meats.

When available, viandas (starchy vegetables) are also included in the Puerto Rican diet. Viandas include plantains, green bananas, taniers, white and yellow sweet potatoes, and chayote squash. Lettuce salads with tomato are popular.

Increasing the calcium intake and the varieties of vegetables would improve the typical Puerto Rican diet. The diet is generally high in calories, complex carbohydrates, fats, and sodium.

Almost 70 percent of the food on the island of Puerto Rico is imported from the United States. Because of this the Puerto Rican diet– particularly the diets of younger generations–has become very Americanized. Favorite foods include pizza, hot dogs, canned spaghetti, cold cereal, and canned soups. Fast food restaurants are also popular. Some Puerto Rican families living on the mainland shift away from traditional dietary patterns. Others maintain their ethnic food patterns after living on the mainland for several decades. Bilingual children can play a major role in promoting dietary changes and modifications.

The population has a tendency toward high blood pressure, heart disease, diabetes (three to five times higher than the general population), cancer, arthritis, gastrointestinal disorders, and obesity.

Nutritional objectives should involve: encouraging selection of foods from all food groups; drinking plenty of water, maintaining ideal body weight, encouraging the use of low-fat dairy products, encouraging the consumption of unsugared fruit juices, teaching a greater variety of preparation styles, and introducing a greater variety of vegetables. The population should also be discouraged from eating sugar and simple carbohydrates, and using excessive fats in cooking.

Eating Practices, Food Preferences and Food Preparation Techniques

Puerto Rican foods are not spicy like Mexican foods, but they do have a mild, distinctive taste. They frequently use a seasoning called sazon, which is mostly MSG. Other common seasonings are annato (a yellow coloring similar to saffron), cilantro, and sofrito (a seasoning sauce used in cooking made from lean cured ham, onion, green pepper, cilantro, and garlic sauteed in oil).

Teaching Implications

Teachers may benefit from developing a trust relationship and engaging learners on a personal level. For example, when passing out papers, hand them to each individual rather than passing them down the row. This will show that "personal touch." Also, do not be offended if you are asked personal questions. Puerto Ricans typically like to touch and feel close (both physically and emotionally) to those around them.

Enlisting the help of a member of the community–such as an elder or older woman, both of whom are well-respected–may benefit your presentations. An indigenous educator that speaks the language is also beneficial. When using written materials remember that many people cannot read English or Spanish.

Possible meeting places may include the church or English-as-a-Second Language classes. Teaching the women may be easier. Frequently, however, the men’s support is needed before the women will listen.

REFERENCES

Common Puerto Rican Foods, Herbs and Spices (1992), New Jersey State WIC Program, New Jersey State Department of Health.

Looker, A., Loria, C.M., Carroll, M.D., McDowell, M.A., Johnson, C.L. (1993). Calcium intakes of Mexican American, Cubans, Puerto Ricans, Non-Hispanic whites and Non-Hispanic Blacks in the United States. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, Volume 93:11, pp 1274-1278.

Sanjur, Diva, (1995). Hispanic Foodways, Nutrition, and Health. Allyn and Bacon Publisher.

Warrix, M., et al, (1993). Cultural Competencies: A Nutrition Wellness Model. Concurrent session at the Ohio Association of Home Economics annual meeting.

Additional resources addressing cultural diversity in nutrition education:

Cross-Cultural Counseling: A Guide for Nutrition and Health Counselors (FNS 250). U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Kittler, P. and Schuer, K. (1989). Food and Culture in America. Van Nostrand & Reinhold, 1989.

Nutrition, Food, and Culture. National Livestock and Meat Board, Chicago, Illinois.

The Spanish explorers owe a great deal to the native population, who introduced corn to their diet. In return, the Indians benefited from European vegetables introduced when Spanish settlers later colonized the region.

Virtually all Southwestern dishes make use of four main ingredients: the tortilla, pinto bean, cheese and chile. The tortilla is a round, wafer-thin bread made from coarsely ground dough (masa) that’s usually cooked in a pan until it has a light-brown texture. Taking the standard refried beans (frijoles) one step further, cooks use dark pink or purple pinto beans, some of which grow organically in the state.