Another unifying element is the recognition of common problems. Those Hispanics who are not fluent in English face obstacles in schooling and employment. Moreover, some white, English-speaking Americans regard all Hispanics as one group—a group whose ancestry and linguistic and social background are different from their own. Such perceptions have led to discrimination in housing and employment that affect all Hispanic American groups and foster unity among them.

National and Ethnic Origins

Within the Hispanic American minority, there are people of different national and ethnic origins. Physical appearances vary widely and often show the blending of European, American Indian, and African features that has occurred over many generations. Most Mexican Americans are mestizos—that is, they are of white and American Indian ancestry. Their white ancestors were mostly Spaniards who colonized what are now Mexico and the American Southwest. Their Indian ancestors were living in these regions when the Spaniards arrived. Many Puerto Ricans are of mixed Spanish and African descent, with their African ancestors having been brought over by the Spaniards to work as slaves. Other Puerto Ricans have some American Indian ancestry as well. Most Cuban Americans are of Spanish descent, though some blacks and mulattoes (people of mixed European and African ancestry) also emigrated from Cuba.

Where Hispanics Live

Settlers in the West Indies

In Puerto Rico and Cuba, early Spanish settlers came into close contact with the Arawak Indians. At first, the Spaniards and the Arawaks enjoyed friendly relations. But as more Spaniards settled Puerto Rico and Cuba in the early 1500’s, they took land from the Arawaks and forced the Indians to work for them. The Arawaks rebelled against this treatment, but their stone weapons were no match for the Spaniards’ guns. Fighting, physical abuse, and disease began to take a heavy toll among the Indians. By the mid-1500’s, almost all of the Arawaks in Puerto Rico and Cuba had died.

Soon after the first Spanish settlers arrived in the West Indies, they began to import black Africans to replace the rapidly dwindling Indian labor force. Although the hundreds of thousands of enslaved blacks brought to the Spanish colonies far outnumbered the Spaniards, the conditions of slavery limited contact between Spaniards and Africans for many years. The blacks were able to maintain much of their own culture, including religions, folklore, and music. The Spanish colonists, meanwhile, carried on a fairly traditional way of life. Cities in Puerto Rico and Cuba resembled European cities in appearance. Spanish musicians performed the music of Spanish composers in concert halls and churches. The few artists working in the colonies also tended to imitate the European styles of the day.

Spanish and African Influences in Puerto Rico and Cuba

Eventually, the Spanish and African influences began to blend in Puerto Rico and Cuba. The Spanish influences dominated in language, religion, and architecture. Although many blacks had been baptized as Christians, they combined Christian religious observances with their traditional ceremonies. They also identified some Christian saints with certain African deities.

Other aspects of African culture had a wider influence in Puerto Rico and Cuba. The music and dancing of the Africans became an important contribution to Latin-American culture. Blacks also told traditional African tales that became part of the folklore of the islands.

Probably the most obvious aspect of cultural blending in the West Indies was the intermingling of population groups. Many of the Spanish men took African mistresses or wives. Today, most Puerto Ricans have both Spanish and African ancestry. Many Cubans also have mixed ancestry.

Aztec Influence in Mexico

In Mexico, the empire of the Aztec Indians covered large areas of central and southern Mexico by the early 1500’s. The Aztec capital was Tenochtitlan, one of the most important centers of trade and religion in the Americas. With an estimated population of 200,000 to 300,000, Tenochtitlan was also one of the largest cities in the world at that time.

Religion and war were the focal points of Aztec society. Much of the Aztec’s art, music, and poetry was intended to glorify their many gods. To remain in favor with their gods, the Aztec practiced human sacrifice. They waged war almost constantly to obtain prisoners to be used as sacrifices.

A complex, highly organized society grew up around the Aztec’s religion and military activities. A large government was needed to administer the empire. Laws were strictly enforced by a system of courts, and criminals were often punished harshly for even small crimes. The Aztec encouraged their children to develop a sense of social responsibility from an early age. All children were required to attend school, where they prepared to become priests, warriors, craftsmen, or householders.

Following the Spanish conquest of Mexico in 1521, the Spanish government moved quickly to establish political control of the new territory. It was the Roman Catholic clergy, however, that most effectively introduced Spanish culture among the Indians. Spanish priests and friars started missions where they instructed the Indians in Spanish, Roman Catholicism, and various practical crafts. The missions did not succeed in molding the Indians to live and work in a European society. But they did help start the process of mestizaje, the blending of Spanish and Indian cultures.

Spanish and Indian Cultures in Mexico

As in the West Indies, the language and religion of the Spaniards came to dominate. But like the Africans in Cuba and Puerto Rico, the Mexican Indians transformed many Spanish religious ceremonies. For example, Spanish priests used Christmas carols called villancicos and solemn pageants called posadas to teach the Indians about the events surrounding the birth of Jesus Christ. Over the years, Indian composers wrote many villancicos about nonreligious subjects. The Indians also turned the posadas into festive processions that took place in people’s homes rather than in church.

In the arts, the talents of Indian sculptors, craftsmen, and musicians were recognized by the Spaniards. Indian wood and stone carvings decorated many buildings that otherwise were of traditional Spanish design. New kinds of music were produced by musicians who combined the sounds of European and Indian instruments.

The Spaniards brought many technological improvements to Mexico. European farming methods and equipment generally brought better harvests than did Indian methods. But in some cases—the cultivation of corn, for example—the Spaniards adopted Indian techniques.

The intermixing of population groups took place in Mexico, as it did in the West Indies. But in Mexico, the intermingling occurred mainly among Spanish men and Indian women. The children of Spanish and Indian parentage became the mestizos, who today are the largest population group among Mexicans and Mexican Americans.

Holidays

Many Hispanic Americans observe the major holidays of their homelands in addition to U.S. holidays. Mexican Americans celebrate the anniversary of Mexico’s independence from Spain on September 16. Cinco de Mayo, which commemorates Mexico’s victory over an invading French army on May 5, 1862, is also a day of celebration among Mexican Americans. Puerto Ricans observe Constitution Day on July 25, the date on which Puerto Rico’s constitution became effective in 1952. Cuban Americans celebrate Cuban Independence Day on May 20, the date Cuba gained its independence from Spain in 1898.

v The Day of the Dead–Mexico Honors Those Gone But Not Forgotten

By Dale Hoyt Palfrey

Her face is unforgettable and she goes by many names: La Catrina, la Flaca, la Huesuda, la Pelona—Fancy Lady, Skinny, Bony, Baldy. A fixture in Mexican society, she’s not some trendy fashion model, but La Muerte—Death.

Renowned writer Octavio Paz observes that, undaunted by death, the Mexican has no qualms about getting up close and personal with death, noting that he "...chases after it, mocks it, courts it, hugs it, sleeps with it; it is his favorite plaything and his most lasting love."

November 1, All Saints Day, and November 2, All Souls Day are marked throughout Mexico by a plethora of intriguing customs that vary widely according to the ethnic roots of each region. Common to all, however, are colorful adornments and lively reunions at family burial plots, the preparation of special foods, offerings laid out for the departed on commemorative altars and religious rites that are likely to include noisy fireworks.

In Mexico the Day of the Dead is a holiday that tends to be a subject of fascination for visitors from abroad. With its rare mix of pre-Hispanic and Roman Catholic rituals, it is also a perfect illustration of the synthesis of pre-Hispanic and Spanish cultures that has come to define the country and its people.

Death held a significant place in the pantheons and rituals of Mexico’s ancient civilizations. Among the Aztecs, for example, it was considered a blessing to die in childbirth, battle or human sacrifice, for these assured the victim a desirable destination in the afterlife. The success of the Spaniard’s spiritual conquest in Mexico is due in part to their willingness to incorporate certain pre-Hispanic customs into Christian practices.

Not surprisingly, as Mexican society has modernized, long-held customs have begun to fall by the wayside, particularly among urbanites. But the rapid encroachment of U.S. culture, intensified since the enactment of North American Free Trade Agreement, seems to have spurred many citizens to actively pursue the preservation of Mexican traditions. While each October the country’s supermarket shelves are now crammed with plastic pumpkins, witches’ hats and rubber masks, government and private institutions have recently increased promotion of commemorative altars displayed in museums, educational centers and other public venues.

Most Mexico guidebooks make special mention of Day of the Dead customs, focusing on the celebrated all-night candlelight vigils in cemeteries at Janitzio Island and Mixquic, to the extent that either may draw nearly as many awed observers as celebrants.

Mixquic, once a farming island of the Aztec empire, is now a district of Mexico City that has retained something of a rural village ambiance and its ancient indigenous roots. The area takes on a busy and festive air in the final days of October as merchants set up street stands to hawk their wares for the Day of the Dead. In the cemetery, all family burial plots are elaborately embellished with an array of earthly delights in the hope of luring departed spirits. At 2 p.m. November 1, relatives gather at each tomb to mourn the loss of loved ones with la llorada—the weeping. Later, when dark would normally envelop the graveyard, the glow of thousands of votive candles illuminates the way for the departed. At Midnight they are called home with the mournful tolling of bells. Then each soul is lovingly remembered with recitations of the Rosary.

Day of the Dead festivities in villages throughout the state of Michoacan have a distinctive flavor reflecting the culture of the area’s Purepecha Indians. Having successfully resisted conquest in the pre-Hispanic era, this ethnic group remained immune to outside influences until the arrival of the Spanish Conquistadors. As in other parts of Mexico, floral tributes, regional repast and candlelight vigils in each local cemetery are integral to the November 1 and 2 celebrations, but among the Purepechas (or Tarascans, as the Spanish named them) these activities are relegated to women and children. Meanwhile, the male population commemorates the season with other rituals related to the fall harvest. Throngs of visitors annually trek to the Island of Janitzio to witness the graveyard vigil there, although equally colorful celebrations may be observed more serenely in most other Michoacan villages.

These Day of the Dead rituals are echoed in cities and villages throughout Mexico. As each locality offers distinctive traditions and a unique flavor bound to fascinate the curious traveler, a visit to any Mexican cemetery would be a worthwhile addition to the itinerary of anyone touring the country this time of year.

v Hispanic Values

Hispanic is a term created by the U.S. federal government in the early 1970s in an attempt to provide a common denominator to a large, but diverse, population with connection to the Spanish language or culture from a Spanish-speaking country. The term Latino is increasingly gaining acceptance among Hispanics, and the term reflects the origin of the population in Latin America.

Family Values

Traditionally, the Hispanic family is a close-knit group and the most important social unit. The term familia usually goes beyond the nuclear family. The Hispanic "family unit" includes not only parents and children but also extended family. In most Hispanic families, the father is the head of the family, and the mother is responsible for the home. Individuals within a family have a moral responsibility to aid other members of the family experiencing financial problems, unemployment, poor health conditions, and other life issues.

Family ties are very strong: when someone travels to another town or city to study or for a short visit (e.g., vacation, business, medical reasons), staying with relatives or even with friends of relatives is a common practice. Families often gather together to celebrate holidays, birthdays, baptisms, first communions, graduations, and weddings. Hispanic families instill in their children the importance of honor, good manners, and respect for authority and the elderly. Preserving the Spanish language within the family is a common practice in most Hispanic homes.

Etiquette

Spanish speakers tend toward formality in their treatment of one another. A firm handshake is a common practice between people as greeting and for leave-taking. A hug and a light kiss on a cheek are also common greeting practices between women, and men and women who are close friends or family. The Spanish language provides forms of formal and nonformal address (different use of usted vs. tu for the pronoun you, polite and familiar commands, the use of titles of respect before people’s first names such as Don or Dona). In nonformal settings, conversations between Spanish speakers are usually loud, fast, and adorned with animated gestures and body language to better convey points.

Hispanics usually give great importance to and place great value on looks and appearance as a sense of honor, dignity, and pride. Formal attire is commonly worn by Hispanics to church, parties, social gatherings, and work. Tennis shoes and jeans, however, are becoming more popular among Hispanic women, particularly in non-formal settings. Hispanics tend to be more relaxed and flexible about time and punctuality than U.S. people. For instance, people who are invited for an 8 a.m. event may not begin to arrive until 8:30 a.m. or later. Within the Hispanic community, not being on time is a socially acceptable behavior. Hispanics tend to be reserved about public speaking because of their heavy foreign accent.

Rituals and Religions

In the Hispanic world, religion has traditionally played a significant role in daily activity. More than 90% of the Spanish-speaking world is Roman Catholic. In recent years, other faith denominations have experienced growth within the U.S. Hispanic community. The church influences family life and community affairs, giving spiritual meaning to the Hispanic culture. Each local community celebrates its patron saint’s day with greater importance and ceremony than individuals do for personal birthdays. As in other parts of the world, traces of the religions of the Indians and African-Americans of Latin America are found in the Catholicism that Hispanics practice.

Celebrations and Holidays

Hispanic countries celebrate the more popular international holidays, notably Easter, Christmas Eve, Christmas, New Year’s Day, and the Three Kings’ Day. In addition, each country celebrates its El Dia de Independencia. The term fiesta nacional refers to an official national holiday; las fiestas refer to festivals–local, regional, or national –that may be held only one day or may last several days. Most holidays are centered on or have their origins in religion. Many celebrations of the Catholic Church are officially designated by the government as holidays. National government offices may be closed or have limited hours for local or regional holidays.

Eating Habits

In Hispanic countries, a light meal is served for breakfast. Lunch, referred as el almuerzo, usually is the main meal of the day for Spanish-speakers. In some countries, it is customary for adult family members and children to come home from work or school for about two hours to be together for this meal. La siesta, which is a rest period taken after lunch, is known to be a common practice among adult Hispanics. In the early evening, la merienda, a light snack of coffee and rolls or sandwiches, is served. This meal is often very informal and may be just for children. In the evening, often as late as 9:00 p.m., la cena, a small supper, concludes the day’s meals. Once settled in the United States, most Hispanics adopt the three-meal system. Midday and evening meals are important family or social events. Especially when guests are present, the meal may be followed by the sobremesa, a time to linger and talk over coffee or perhaps an after-dinner drink. Usually when food or additional servings are offered to Hispanics, they tend to accept only after it is offered a second or third time.

Teaching and Learning Implications

To fully engage Hispanic audiences in the learning process, particular attention should be given to gaining and maintaining trust. Greater acceptance of educational efforts will occur by learners if Hispanic community leaders are involved in the planning, delivery, and evaluation of these educational efforts. Be aware that the physical distance between Hispanics when holding a conversation is much closer than in other cultures.

Exhibiting respect for learners is another important aspect of the Hispanic culture. Teachers need to pay individual attention to learners (e.g., greeting each learner, handing papers to each individual rather than passing them down the row, being sensitive to different cultures among Hispanics, writing educational materials at appropriate reading levels). Differences in educational levels, language skills, income levels, and cultural values among Hispanics need to be considered by educators when planning educational programs. Even though Hispanics share the same language, their cultures may vary considerably.

Churches, local libraries, and recreational centers (with child-care arrangements, if needed) may be appropriate places to hold educational programs with Hispanic audiences. Among Hispanics, information is passed mostly by word of mouth. Grocery stores and churches are the main places people meet, visit, and exchange information.

REFERENCES

Gessler. The Language Learning Center - Spanish. 1998. Hispanic culture capsules. Roanoke, Va. Gessler Publishing Co., Inc.

Noble, J. and LaCasa, J. 1991. The Hispanic way: Aspects of behavior, attitudes, and customs of the Spanish-speaking world. Chicago, Ill. Passport Books.

Rodriguez, S. 1995. Hispanics in the United States: An insight into group characteristics. Department of Health and Human Services. Web Site: http: //www/hhs.gov/about/heo/hgen.html