Module V

The Supervisory Relationship

Key Concepts:

The parallel process is an unconscious replication in the supervisory session of therapeutic difficulties that a supervisee has with a client.

Action guidelines for identifying and implementing corrective action for working through parallel process include, but are not limited to the following:

	Pay attention to one's own emotional response to the supervisory session.
	Explore for similarities in the dynamics in the supervisory session and the therapeutic relationship.
	Acknowledge one's role in helping to create it and invite the supervisee to explore his/ her involvement in the replication.

Since supervision is potentially an emotional experience, it may resemble a therapeutic encounter. There is always the danger that the boundary between teaching and therapy becomes blurred in supervision.

The imbalance of power always exists in the supervisory relationship even if supervisors adhere to the feminist concept of "power with" rather than "power over". Inviting and modeling mutuality is a constant challenge and involves engaging staff as partners.

Supervisors can become effective leaders, but that does not occur automatically when the position is assumed. Supervisors themselves need help in identifying their strengths and the areas for improvement. They are in a position of evaluating others, but also need to seek out feedback from staff and their administrative superiors to insure their continued professional growth.

Endings are difficult and, therefore, it is incumbent on supervisors, to see that staff members attend to their own needs in grieving as well as to be present for their clients in this process.

Kurland and Salmon emphasize the stressful nature of today's practice and the pervasive sense of hopelessness that many practitioners endure. They point out the need for supervisors to help staff be realistic in formulating goals and to value small successes.

There is a great deal of flexibility in good leadership. Good leadership may be a shared process depending on the situation. Part of the responsibility of a supervisor is to "grow" professional. As staff members develop and are given more responsibility in the areas in which they show promise, a good supervisor/leader encourages and delegates leadership responsibilities appropriately. This does not mean leaving staff afloat without administrative support, but rather the opposite: offering reassurance that the worker does have the support in undertaking new leadership responsibilities.

v Parallel Process

Think about the supervisory relationship as the essence or foundation for the quality and effectiveness of supervision in mental health and chemical dependency. We have previously alluded to some of the issues related to the authority. Shulman implies relationship in the very name he has chosen for his approach to supervision: the interactive model. Transference and countertransference have been introduced as applicable concepts to enlighten our understanding of the dynamics of supervision. It is very difficult to talk about supervision without alluding to or highlighting the importance of the relationship as the crucible for professional growth, both for the supervisee and the supervisor. Clarifying expectations for both, tuning in, balancing challenge or a demand for work with support, are some of the other ideas that have been identified as important skills in developing a positive supervisory relationship. We will now turn our attention to some other powerful aspects of the relationship that can be useful in fulfilling the complex role of supervisor.

From psychodynamic theory, the notion of parallel process is defined and discussed in your reading. In my experience, when students grasp the concept of parallel process, a lot of mysteries from prior experience from both sides of the supervisory desk are clarified, especially those related to being "stuck" in supervision. It is a reminder that we, like it or not, are all human, and as such, we all have blind spots. If that were not true, no one would ever need the kind of supervision that I believe is crucial to effective practice in mental health and chemical dependency-namely, supervision which expects that the worker be self-examining as it relates to work with clients. Whether or not you claim psychodynamic theory as part of your professional tradition, I believe you will find parallel process is a beneficial concept.

What is your reaction to the concept of parallel process? State your rationale for including or discarding this notion.

v Professional Boundaries

The importance of professional boundaries between supervisors and staff is significant. Shulman pointed out that a good supervisory relationship is not cold and sterile. However, issues of ethics and effectiveness demand that proper boundaries be maintained. A supervisor is not a professional peer, nor is a supervisor the staff therapist, although, in my experience, supervision can be therapeutic. The supervisor is human, and the supervisor is a partner, but the relationship is hierarchical, and there is an uneven distribution of power. This fact must be respected for staff to feel safe and be able to engage with the supervisor to improve his/her practice effectiveness and service delivery to clients. Winnicott notion of "an intermediate area" in infant development has been adapted to give us a visual model to help assess the normal blurring that occurs between the three functions of supervision, and to recognize where boundary violations may be occurring.

How can supervision be therapeutic when supervisors are admonished not to blur the boundary between the roles of supervisor and therapist?

v Three Elements of the Supervisory Relationship

Finally, Holloway has identified three primary elements of the supervisory relationship: the interpersonal structure, the phases, and the contract. She elaborates on the structure by looking at power as a concept found in feminist thinking and defined as power "with" rather than power "over". She emphasizes the importance of mutuality, the developmental nature of the relationship, and contract as the tool not only to negotiate specific tasks, but to define the parameters of the relationship.

Leadership

What is leadership? We think of leaders as people who can get the job done, but isn't a leader more than that? Being a leader means, among other things, that the person in that position has the ability to inspire people to "hang tough" when the work situation is overwhelming, to motivate people to move beyond their comfortable limits, to work as part of a team and to contribute to the agency as a whole. To be a leader one must possess the ability to influence others. But there are different kinds of leaders, and different kinds of leaders are effective in different kinds of situations. One way to differentiate different types of leaders in oversimplified terms is to think of leaders who are most effective in getting the job done, and leaders who are more effective in attending to the human needs and concerns of the staff and who facilitate the process of working together. Task and process leadership are both necessary, but one style of leadership may be more effective in certain situations while the other may be more effective in others. A single leader may be able to utilize both styles or there may be an unspoken division of labor between several staff when the need arises.

It has been previously pointed out that it is important for the supervisor to balance a demand for work and emotional support with individual staff. It is important to find that balance between task and process in also thinking about the needs of the staff as a whole and those of the agency, always remembering the best interests of the clients. This is no small order. Or put another way, supervision is not for "sissies", to borrow from Kathryn Hepburn. This is not a job for anyone who cannot deal with conflict or who needs to be popular all the time to feel good about oneself. Administrators, even good ones, are targets for criticism. A good leader must be secure enough within him/herself to listen to a wide range of voices all with different priorities, consider various points of view, and then act ethically within the boundaries of his/her authority. The need to live out of the serenity prayer seems evident in assuming the responsibility of supervision, i.e., keeping in mind what is within one's power to change and what is not.

In Powell's chapter on leadership issues in supervision, he points out that management and leadership are not the same thing. He states: " Leadership entails teaching, mentoring, and coaching in the service of a set of core values...It transforms people by raising their sights and aspirations to a higher level, thereby engendering a greater sense of purpose". He identifies some leadership qualities and makes distinctions between leadership and management and supervision.

The idea of being a corporate or agency "mystic" goes even further in presenting a model for effective leadership. Hendricks and Ludeman define a corporate "mystic" as a person who operates from a base of integrity, sometimes intuitively, who pursues visions with passion and compassion, and evokes the full potential of those with whom he/she comes in contact. That is certainly a lofty goal to inspire growth as supervisors.

Finally, as we conclude the focus on the supervisory relationship with this class, a word about endings. To say that we do not honor endings in this culture is to state the obvious. Supervisors must model good beginnings and endings with staff, and take responsibility for not colluding with staff to "wiggle" out of painful relationship or programmatic endings. My supervisees have taught me, for example, that they grieve the loss of the agency or program as they knew it, the loss of security within a given position or job within the agency, or the loss of community support for agency services. Supervision is an ideal place for these feelings to be discussed and honored. Support for supervisors to create meaningful ways to say good-bye to clients and to other professional losses is vital to maintaining morale and productivity.

Identify five principles of leadership for successful organizations and illustrate how you might implement them in your agency.

Where would you begin to move your agency in the direction of a great place to work? Give your rationale.

How would you help your staff deal with losses related to their professional roles?

What needs to happen when the supervisor leaves his/her position? How can the supervisor prepare staff for the transition and pave the way for the new supervisor? Why is that important?

v Reading Outlines and Study Questions - Module V

Itzhaky, H. & Itzhaky, T. (1996). The Therapy-Supervision Dialectic. Clinical Social Work Journal, 24(1).

There has been and still is controversy surrounding how supervision should handle emotional and therapeutic areas.

There is general consensus however that supervision is a combination of three functions:

Administrative-supervisory

Educational

Emotional-supportive.

The authors of this article did a literature review on this topic and came up with several conclusions:

There is a general agreement that supervision is a potentially emotional experience.

There is a danger of spill over into therapeutic relationships, and there are many attempts in the literature to define the boundary between supervision and therapy.

Supervision as an Intermediate Area

The proposed model by the authors is composed of the following elements:

Supervision encompasses teaching, emotional support, and administration.

There are no clear dividing lines between supervision and each of these fields.

The supervision area will be described by characterizing its center. In the center is a zone in which the clarity of three fields of teaching, emotional-support and administration are blurred together.

The supervision area is an intermediate area in the sense that it is situated between three fields that are interconnected in a dialectic of contradiction and declaration.

The Therapy-Supervision Dialectic Study Questions

What are the three functions of supervision?
What do the authors mean by supervision as an intermediate area? What are some of the elements of this?

Holloway, E. (1995). The relationship of supervision. In Clinical supervision: A systems approach, (pp. 41-52). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications

Relationship is a dynamic element of supervision. The process of supervision is enacted within the relationship.

Supervisor and supervisee bring to their relationship expectations and experience that shape the process, and the process, in turn, contributes to the development of the relationship structure.

In the systems approach to supervision (SAS), the supervisor and supervisee negotiate a way of using a structure of power and involvement that accommodates the trainee's progression of learning. This structure becomes the basis for the process by which the trainee will acquire knowledge and skill, and the result is the empowerment of the trainee.

Three essential elements of the relationship of supervision:

Interpersonal structure of the relationship

Phases of the relationship

Supervisory contract

Interpersonal Structure

	Power and involvement are important constructs in understanding the nature of the supervisory relationship.
	Supervision is a formal relationship in which the supervisor's task includes imparting knowledge, making judgments of trainees' performance, and acting as gatekeeper to the profession.
	Supervisor has formal power based on his or her position and therefore supervisory relationship is hierarchical. The process of the relationship, however, allows for shared influence to emerge.
	The Eurocentric perspective views power as dominance and control. However, the supervisor should look at power in terms of "power with" rather than "power over"

Three preferred methods used in supervision research to describe the power of the supervisor are:

Sociological typology
Circumplex model
Communication matrix

Circumplex model provides the framework that places power in a relational system that includes an involvement or affiliation (intimacy/attachment) dimension that every relationship has by definition. Both participants determine the distribution of power or the degree of attachment to one another.

Leary's theory of interpersonal relations undergirds the SAS interpersonal structure of the supervision relationship. Although the relationship takes on a unique character that can be defined by power and involvement, the participants bring their own history of interpersonal style, which influences how the supervisor and trainee ultimately present themselves in forming their new relationship. The focus is on the influence of relationship on the action and thinking of the participants during the supervisory process.

Phases of the Relationship

Informal relationships - two factors:

As a relationship evolves the participants rely less on general, cultural and social information and more on idiosyncratic information of the participant.
As the relationship evolves to an interpersonal one, there is a process of reduced uncertainty allowing for better use of control strategies and communicative modes that will reduce the level of conflict in the relationship.

Three principles related to the progression toward a more intimate relationship:

Change in the relationship occurs because of the need to increase or decrease the likelihood of attaining a reward.
The definition of relational change assumes a decision that change can be made by one or both persons in the relationship.
Changes in the relationship are caused by changes in the content of communications between relational partners.

Development of an interpersonal relationship promotes a focus on shared idiosyncratic rules created just for that particular relationship.

Supervision initially provides a general expectancy base for certain interactive behaviors. As the relationship develops however, it is individualized around the learning needs of the trainee and the teaching approaches of the supervisor.

Phase of the relationship does not itself determine the level of involvement in the relationship, as individual differences also play a part. Three phases of the relationship are:

Beginning phase
Mature phase
Terminating phase

The Supervisory Contract

	Clarity of supervisor/supervisee expectations affects the relationship and the establishment of specific learning goals. The supervisor must ensure that supervisee is clearly informed of the evaluative structure of the relationship, the expectancies and goals for supervision, the criteria for evaluation, and the limits of confidentiality in supervision.
	The contract is critical to establishing a way of being together in supervisory relationship. The supervisor should negotiate specific tasks and define parameters of relationship.
	Supervisor must be alert to changing character of the relationship and initiate discussion on renewed goals and relational expectations.
	Dimensions of the supervision interview:

Framing the context for the discussion of supervisory material
Determining the focal point for the discussion
Identifying a teaching-learning goal within this context
Choosing a strategy appropriate for the teaching goal and the context in which supervisor and trainee are working
Evaluating appropriateness of the goal and the effectiveness of the teaching and learning

The Relationship of Supervision Study Questions

List the 3 essential elements of the relationship of supervision.
List and describe the 3 phases of the supervisory relationship.
What are the 5 dimensions of the supervision interview?
What is parallel process? Give an example from your own experiences.

Nelson, M. L. (1997). An interactional model for empowering women in supervision. Counselor Education and Supervision, 37, 125-138.

Gender-related power differences still exist in society at large, as well as in supervision. Therefore, it is important for supervisors to use his or her expert power to assist the trainee in assuming power.

The traditional use of the word `power' involves dichotomies such as strong vs. weak; therefore, women often feel aversive to it due to their premium on intimacy.

Relational power is when two people in a relationship can share power in a mutually enhancing way that benefits both of them.

The Interpersonal Circumplex is a model for conceptualizing relational power. It is a circle that is divided into top, bottom, left and right sections. The top is power, the bottom is submission, the left is hostility and the right is friendliness.

The Complementarity theory is a theory of communication based on the circumplex model. According to this theory, certain types of messages from a sender constrain, or influence the range of responses from a receiver based on where they occur on the circumplex. An example is that a high power message should elicit a low power message and vice versa.

Trainees at all levels express satisfaction with supervisors who rather than providing them with conceptualizations and counseling goals assist them to form their own conceptualizations and goals. Trainees appreciate supervisors who allow them to pursue their own sense of power as counselors.

Greater attention to the interactional aspects of supervision should provide greater power to guide the use of power with all supervisees.

An Interactional Model for Empowering Women Study Questions

What is relational power, and how can it be used in supervision with women?
Describe the Interpersonal Circumplex and how the Complementarity Theory relates to it.

Powell, D.J. (1993). Key issues in clinical supervision. In Clinical supervision in alcohol and drug abuse counseling, (pp. 90-107). New York: Lexington Books

Determining the Needs of Staff

	Formal evaluations of the counselor's strengths and weaknesses are necessary if the counselor is to grow.
	Evaluations provide indicators to the program administrators of needed changes in agency management and personnel.
	Evaluations provide clients a check in ensuring that the highest quality of work is provided.

Methods for Determining Needs of Staff

	Client outcome evaluation is problematic because it is difficult to correlate client outcome with counselor performance.
	Objective measurements of skills and competencies are being developed and tested.
	Peer evaluations often fellow counselors are more critical than supervisors.
	Colleague evaluations are conducted by credentialing body.
	Clinical assessments by supervisor are the most accurate statement of the counselor's strengths and weaknesses.
	Clinical assessments by supervisor can be done through a discrepancy analysis process-where is the counselor now versus where he/she should be.
	Another form of input regarding counselor skills is a concept paper, which provides the supervisor with statements, be counselor on her goals and perceptions of her role as counselor. It also provides a projective assessment of the psychological and emotional functioning of the counselor.
	To identify where the counselor should be, the supervisor must examine the counselor's tasks and skills needed to perform these tasks. This article provides sample assessment form to be completed. Upon completion of forms, a processing session should occur between supervisor and counselor.
	General principles in assessing counselors:

Evaluations should be continuous throughout the supervisory sessions.
Supervisor and counselor should be aware of the nature and extent of the evaluations to be provided.
Both must agree upon the role that these evaluations will play in performance evaluations and administrative decisions.
Assessments must take into account the realities of the job itself.
Focus of the valuations must be upon counselor in relation to clients.
Counselor ought to have opportunities to evaluate supervisor's performance in open atmosphere that is free from sanctions.
The evaluations should be fair and well-balanced explaining weaknesses and strengths.

Trainee's Learning Experience and Role Expectations

There are three major stages in process of becoming a counselor.

Beginning counselor: The most important factor to be dealt with is anxiety. Another stress is the intensity and immediacy of emotions of people in counseling. Supervisor can help the new counselor to deal with these stresses by instilling a sense of trust in competency of supervisor herself.
Experienced counselor: Requires further training to gain experience with a variety of clinical situations. The supervisor must inform counselor of areas of need, stages of their professional and personal development, and set up learning goals in keeping with these strengths and weaknesses.
Mature counselor: Supervisor serves as ally, core source person, and peer who is able to share ideas and information. Although supervisor must maintain position of power and responsibility for care of the unit, when supervising mature counselor, supervisor can be far more open and the two can work together as coequals.

Key Issues in Clinical Supervision Study Questions

What are three of the methods for determining the needs of the staff?
What are three of the general principles in assessing counselors in supervision?

Miller, P.D. (1997). The spirit of 9 to 5. Yoga Journal, Nov/Dec. 73-79.

Spirit At Work

The infusion of spirituality into business is part of a "worldwide impulse" expressed in America by the so-called "cultural creatives."

For most people spiritualizing the workplace is more likely to be a do-it-yourself project than company policy.

Even if you work for one of the icons of conscious business, you still have to deal with the elements that make work…work.

Practical steps to bringing your spiritual values into a potentially hostile work environment:

If you have a lousy job, stop lamenting your fate.

Recommended practice: Take time out to be grateful for one thing that happened to you.

Make quality job number one. The greatest antidote to boredom is a commitment to excellence.

Recommended practice: Reward yourself for a job well done by searching for a way to do it even better.

Give up personal ambition in order to serve. This does not necessarily mean you have to quit being CEO, but it might help.

Recommended practice: Find a way to increase the service element of your present job, no matter what it is.

Listen, listen, listen. Truly effective listening is ultimately more powerful than getting your words in first or last.

Recommended practice: With other part.icipant's permission, record conversation and listen to it at a later time. Listen for when you stopped listening and not what happened next.

Slow down whenever possible to listen to your source - some kind of centering practice is essential to maintaining sanity, efficiency, and inspiration.

Recommended practice: Use moments of anger, disappointment, or fear as cues to breathe deeply.

Get clear about money - first step to personal economic liberation is to recognize money as a means to greater ends, never an end in itself.

Recommended practice: Recognize how unclear you may be about money; then figure out which problems in your life would actually be solved with money; finally devise workable plan for achieving serenity, intimacy, and fulfillment for the rest of your life- based on the assumption that you'll never have the amount of money you'll need to solve your problems.

Be ready to die - always be able to say, "I was absolutely doing the best I could under the circumstances."

Recommended practice: Contemplate possibility that your next life could be a promotion.

The Spirit of 9 to 5 Study Questions

What is the recommended practice for the principle of giving up personal ambition in order to serve?
What are some ways that you can bring more spirit into the workplace?
What are two ways to being a `corporate mystic'?

Kurland, R., & Salmon, R. (1992). When problems seem overwhelming: Emphasis in teaching, supervision, and consultation. Social Work 37(3), pp.240-244.

There are increasing pressures for social work practitioners in regard to society's current problems, and supervisors are needed to prepare competent and self-assured social workers for the future.

The Current Environment

	Today's social workers work with many complex client problems, which can create problems for the social workers and their supervisors.
	Some of the current issues that have affected society are AIDS, teenage pregnancy, and Alzheimer's disease.
	Burnout is increasing among social workers, and they often feel hopeless about the situations around them. Supervisors are important in helping social workers to realize the incremental nature of their work, to help them identify what may be considered as achieving success in their efforts, and to give them sufficient skill and understanding to achieve this level of success.

Five areas that need special emphasis for social workers

Help workers set realistic goals in their work while encouraging them to recognize and appreciate the small successes that are achieved by their clients.
Developing positive norms and setting limits.
Working with open-ended groups and with individuals and groups where attendance is sporadic.
Dealing with differences and conflict, especially racially based conflict.
Using activities to help clients express their thoughts and feelings and work cooperatively with others.

When Problems Seem Overwhelming Study Questions

What are some of the reasons for the importance of supervisors preparing competent and self-assured social workers?
What are two of the strategies that can help achieve this goal?

Shulman, L. (1993). Supervisory endings and transitions. In Interactional Supervision, (2^nd ed., pp. 141-152). Washington, D.C.: NASW Press.

There are two general types of supervisory endings; one being when the staff member leaves the job and the other is when the supervisor leaves. The dynamics of both types of endings are somewhat similar to those of the worker-client ending.

The Worker's Ending Experience

	Common ending themes include denial by all parties of the feelings associated with the staff leaving, which may include guilt, and a sense of unfinished business.
	Six strategies for dealing with a worker's ending are:

The supervisor can call attention to the ending by noting the date at a conference or staff meeting.
The supervisor can identify the dynamics of the ending phase as they emerge.
The supervisor can acknowledge his or her own feelings about the worker's departure.
The supervisor can structure an ending evaluation period that includes systematic attention to the supervision experience.
Attention to the ending between the worker and other staff members is often appreciated.
The supervisor can use the experience to help the worker focus on the specific skills of dealing with client endings.

Ending a Negative Relationship

	An honest ending and transition is very important when ending a poor supervisory relationship. It is very helpful to the supervisor and to the worker who may otherwise repeat his or her mistakes on the next job.
	In this phase, the supervisor may be able to do his or her best work and get a lot out of the experience.

The Supervisor's Ending Experience

The dynamics and processes involved in the worker's endings that have been described in the preceding section are equally relevant to a supervisor's departure from a staff or agency setting.

The processes of transference and countertransference can lead to the development of relationships of unexpected intensity.

Supervisors are as likely as workers to underplay their impact and the intensity of the feelings associated with leaving.

Supervisory Endings and Transitions Study Questions

What are 2 of the strategies to help the supervisor deal with a worker leaving?
What are some of the similarities and differences between a worker and a supervisor leaving their place of employment?

Assignments: Module V

Give an example of parallel process in your work. How does the concept enhance your effectiveness?
Where are boundaries most troublesome/helpful in your role?
Reflect on the authority in your role and your comfort level in exercising it. How do you ask authoritatively?

General comments, thoughts:

Think about and list two ways authority in your role helps get the job done without alienating people. How do you use personal influence on the job?
Describe your experience with a meaningful ending - personal or professional-and discuss what made it meaningful for you.
Suggest one realistic way to improve staff morale in your agency.