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Key Concepts:
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Shulman distinguishes practice theory, model, and skills. Practice theory, as it is used in his book, is a term that describes underlying assumptions, practice goals based on those assumptions, and descriptive supervisory behaviors to meet those goals. Practice theory for Shulman must be practical. It is geared toward helping supervisors face day-to-day problems.
A model is a representation of reality. Shulman points out that he relies on several different models to describe and simplify the complexities of supervision. Skill is a term that refers to specific behaviors used by supervisors to perform their professional tasks.
Shulman uses a definition of supervision from Kadushin (1976). Kadushin says a supervisor is "an agency administrative staff member to whom authority is delegated to direct, coordinate, enhance, and evaluate on-the-job performance of the supervisor for whose work he/she is held accountable...the supervisor performs administrative, educational, and supportive functions in interaction with the supervisee in the context of a positive relationship". Shulman views the worker's function as a dynamic one, and he believes that the supervisor's focus should be on the activities of the worker rather than on analysis of the worker him/herself.
What is the advantage of supervisory focus on worker activity vs. focus on the worker?
This is an incredibly important concept, because it enables the supervisee to hear constructive criticism rather that being compelled to defend him/herself from personal attack.
Why do you think this is so? Can you illustrate this concept with an example from your own practice?
Shulman applies Schwartz's concept as a central feature of supervision. He sees supervision as a mediation process through which the supervisor and supervisee reach out to each other for mutual fulfillment. The supervisor also mediates estrangements between the worker and various other systems such as the agency, other staff, etc. Supervisors using mediation bring issues out into the open rather than allowing them to fester.
In considering any model, it is necessary to consider the organizational milieu and the position of the professional supervisee vis-a-vis staff and upper level management. The supervisor cannot escape the tension that arises from his/her accountability to the agency, the staff, and ultimately to the clients. No simple, "pure" model of supervision is likely to be effective in every setting. Just as one is challenged to adapt one's style to the developmental level of staff, one is also challenged to effectively adapt to the changing demands of the professional milieu.
Powell indicates that a model of supervision has a number of layers: philosophical foundation, descriptive dimensions, contextual factors, and staff development (both of supervisee and supervisor). Powell sees the focus of supervision as behavioral change and skill acquisition. In other words, he believes the emphasis should be on helping staff learn "how to use oneself in counseling to promote behavioral change in the client". Powell notes that models of supervision have tended to emphasize either skill development or the emotional/interpersonal dynamics and self-discovery of the worker. In chemical dependency, the emphasis has been on skill development. Newer models have incorporated both. He advises professionals to develop their own model of supervision in order to understand what one is doing and why.
Some criteria are outlined by Powell to test any given model of supervision. Analyze the criteria: does it help supervisees improve their performance, does it make work more manageable, does it provide both support and challenge to promote staff growth, does it meet agency, credentialing, training, institution requirements…?
Powell presents the highlights of several different models. Some, like the psychoanalytical model, are applications of a counseling or psychotherapeutic model or theory to supervision. He also highlights several developmental models that are all based on the assumption that human beings develop over time and that human growth is a process with some very general recognizable stages or phases that are at least somewhat predictable. It is not necessary to memorize all of these models, but seeing staff through the "lens" of "works in progress" is very useful, and a developmental model can serve as a guide to supervision by informing supervisors of the need to adapt the relationship to meet the supervisee's needs based on the developmental level at the time.
The developmental model that Powell seems to prefer is the Stoltenberg and Delworth model. Powell assumes that supervisors as well as supervisees grow and change with experience, so it may be well to think of the developmental model, as it is applicable to your own growth as supervisors. For, example, you will recall from your reading that Stolenberg and Delworth suggest that entry level or beginning counselors exhibit the following characteristics:
Highly dependent on others. At this level counselors tend to imitate their mentors and have expectations that they can bet "right" answers from their supervisors. There is a tendency to apply "cook book" solutions to clinical issues.
Lacking in self and other awareness. As Powell so aptly expresses it, there is more self-consciousness than self-awareness at this stage. There is a lack of confidence and a great deal of anxiety over risking themselves to receive evaluative feedback. A social work pioneer, Bertha Reynolds, identified this as the stage of acute self-consciousness. Counselors or trainees need a great deal of structure and concrete reassurance at this stage.
Rigid, stereotyped thinking. Conceptualization is minimal at this stage and thinking in general tends to be superficial.
Motivated and idealistic. There is usually a lot of unrealistic expectation but also a great deal of determination to do well at this stage.
What are the advantages of Powell and Shulman's models?
The optimal learning environment for this stage is one that encourages autonomy, and provides a lot of structure, and support. In social work we talk a lot about a strengths perspective, which is very important at this stage. A strengths perspective requires that the supervisor help the trainee identify aspects of his/her practice that are good or excellent along with suggesting areas that need improvement. It is important that this feedback is not over-generalized or unrealistically glowing, but realistic praise for accomplishments or insights, etc. goes a long way to build worker confidence.
What do you consider to be the value in conceptualizing your own model of supervision?
Shulman, L. (1993). An interactional approach to supervision. In Interactional supervision, (2nd ed., pp. 11-30). Washington, DC: NASW Press.
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A social work supervisor's purpose is to direct, coordinate, enhance, and evaluate on-the-job performance of the supervisees for whose work he or she is held accountable. The supervisor performs administrative, educational, and supportive functions in interaction with the supervisee in the context of a positive relationship. |
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The quality of staff education is determined by the extent to which workers feel free to reveal their problems, share their mistakes, and use the wisdom and experience of both their supervisors and peers. |
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Although the interactional work generates the most difficulty in implementing the supervision function, it is also the part that can prove most challenging and satisfying. |
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A useful model used with helping professionals is one that conceptualizes staff members constantly interacting with a number of systems that are directly related to their work. (i.e., clients, agency administrators, supervisors, other agencies, etc.) |
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An underlying assumption of the interactional perspective is that this relationship is always reciprocal. Each movement of the worker is affected by the influence of the other system, and in turn the reactions of the other person are constantly influenced by the behaviors of the worker. |
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The worker's tasks in an agency consists of a number of components: |
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Job management-worker must be able to work within the structure of the agency in terms of time. |
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Worker must be able to relate effectively to agency policy and procedures and to develop skills to deal with professional colleagues, support staff and supervisor. |
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The functional role of the supervisor may be best explained as mediating the engagement between the worker and the system. |
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The issues of job stress and job manageability are crucial in supervision. Supervisors often feel stressed in making important decisions within the agency, but also having a large workload that can stretch them too thin. |
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In a recent study, stress appeared to affect a front-line supervisor's availability to workers, capacity for empathy, and ability to implement a consultation role and the ability of the worker to talk openly to the supervisor. |
What are the purposes for a social work supervisor?
What is the underlying basis for interactional supervision?
Where does the supervisor fit in with the worker and the system?
Powell, D. (1993). A developmental approach to supervision. In Clinical supervision in alcohol and drug abuse counseling. (p. 58-84). New York, NY: Lexington Books.
The developmental approach to clinical supervision is based on developmental psychology, which encompasses the description, explanation, and modification of individual behavior across the life span.
Factors that contribute to development include heredity, environment, learning process, age, critical periods in the person's life, continuity or discontinuity of development, and structural considerations.
Stoltenberg and Delworth came up with the Integrated Developmental Model for Supervision (IDM), which synthesizes the common elements of previous models into a comprehensive, well-elaborated whole.
| The three basis structures of the developmental levels of both counselors and supervisors are autonomy, self and other awareness, and motivation. |
Level 1: Highly dependent on others, lacking in self and other awareness, categorical in their thinking, and highly motivated and committed to work. They are often very apprehensive about their skills and tend to cling rigidly to one model until it fails to work consistently. The optimal learning environment for these counselors is one that encourages autonomy while providing instruction, support and modeling within a structured atmosphere.
Level 2: Vacillate between autonomy and dependence, more aware of self and others, and inconsistently motivated. These counselors have a tendency to become too client focused. Supervisors working with these counselors need to be prepared for a challenge.
Level 3: Securely autonomous, aware and accepting of self and others, and stably motivated. They are more confident and realistic about their job. Supervision with these counselors resembles consultation and collegial support.
Level 1: Characterized by anxiety and naiveté. They tend to be mechanistic in their style, and highly motivated. Should be supervisors for level 1 counselors only.
Level 2: Characterized by confusion, conflict and frustration. Supervisors do not tend to stay in this stage for long. They work best with entry-level staff.
Level 3: Capable of honest self-appraisal and are relatively experienced in all domains. They can supervise counselors at all levels of development.
List and describe the 3 levels of counselor development.
List and describe the 3 levels of supervisor development.
Perlmulter, F. (1990). Changing hats from social work practice to administration: The total administrator. In making the shift from practice to administration, (pp. 20-32). Washington, DC: NASW Press.
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Confusion that accompanies process of "changing hats" when moving from clinician to administrator, must let go of previous position. |
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As agency administrator one most effectively serves client as an advocate for all of them. Thus, should not attempt to maintain individual caseload. |
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Professional network necessary to develop relationships with administrators outside own agency. |
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Accepting the consequences of these two shifts allows more time to focus on administrative tasks and allows for emotional separation necessary in shift toward acquiring and using administrative power and authority. |
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Administration requires completely different skills from direct practice. |
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"Role tasks" as a model for synthesizing position of clinician and administrator. |
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First Role Task: Develop an integrated social and psychological conception of the organization and its societal context. |
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Second Role Task: Deal with other staff members from a position of authority. |
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Third Role Task: Relate to members of other professions and disciplines. |
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Fourth Role Task: Deal with people, groups, and institutions outside one's organization. |
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Fifth Role Task: Provide for organizational growth and innovation (Acronym VISION-Values, Intent, Skills, Innovation, Objectives, Negotiation). |
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Sixth Role Task: Achievement of new identity. |
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Administrator must be externally oriented, must become sophisticated in organizational politics, effectively negotiating the political realities that affect the organization. |
| Advocacy_important direct linkage between advocacy and politics; administrator bears responsibility of educating broader community about agency's experience regarding client needs while at the same time challenging the community to accept a stake in the agency's mandate. |
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First Role Task can be identified as a systems perspective. |
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Understanding the context of the social service agency is the starting point for effective administration. Five factors in external environment affect social service agency directly: 1) turbulent environment, 2) value shifts, 3) new technology, 4) equal opportunity practices, 5) professional unions. |
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All service giving agencies combine three essential elements: 1) the provider of the services (practitioner), 2) the user of the service (client/consumer), and 3) the organization (service agency) that brings these other two together. |
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Each of these elements is embedded in a network that impinges on them and also affect the agency: |
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Practitioner operates as worker but also connected to and identified with the profession for which he or she has been educated. |
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Client linkages to network of family and friends and of other clients experiencing the same problem. |
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Agency part of the community that is located either in the public or voluntary sector. |
| The three system elements and their networks are explored and ordered into primary, secondary, and tertiary constituencies depending on the intensity of the relationship and the connectedness of the elements: 1) primary constituency: internal constituencies: that are viewed as administrative priorities, 2) secondary constituency: external constituencies but directly involved with elements and play important roles, 3) tertiary constituency: external constituencies that are not directly involved but have influence over the element. |
| Health center designed to provide high-quality, low cost health services to women from all socioeconomic backgrounds. |
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The context. |
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Administrator has no choice but to be client-oriented and proactive and must empower the client-consumer, board of directors, and staff cohorts to become politically active as well. |
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Blackwell's Life Space_Primary, secondary and tertiary constituencies presented in regard to the three system elements: agency, service provider, client/consumer |
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Understanding the whole. |
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One's position in the organization determines one's vantage point and perspective_administrator must be cognizant of all the system elements and their networks. |
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Type of leadership style depends on particular organization requisites; challenge is to understand the system and to be able to assess creatively the appropriate leadership approach for that setting. |
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"Know thyself" and then assess particular position to determine whether it is appropriate in terms of individual interests, skills, and experiences. |
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Delegate responsibility, but bottom line is that the task be done effectively as the administrator is responsible for the total operation. |
List the 6 role tasks for a clinician and administrator.
What is the relationship between the first role task and the systems perspective?
What are the concepts of Blackwell as a social system?
Hawkins, P. and Shohet, R. (1989) A Process Model of Supervision. In Supervision in the Helping Professions (p. 55-75). Philadelphia: Open University Press.
This chapter explores the Double Matrix Model of supervision. It turns the focus away from the context and wider organization issues to look more closely at the process of the supervisory relationship.
All supervision situations involve at least four elements: 1) a supervisor, 2) a supervisee, 3) a client, and 4) a work context.
The supervision process involves two interlocking systems or matrices: 1) the therapy system, which interconnects the client and the therapist and 2) the supervision system or matrix which involves the therapist and the supervisor.
The Double Matrix Model of Supervision divides supervision styles into two main categories: 1) supervision that pays attention directly to the therapy matrix, and 2) supervision that pays attention to the therapy matrix as it is reflected in the supervision process. Each of these two major styles of managing the supervision process can be subdivided into three categories creating six modes of supervision.
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Attention is concentrated on the actual phenomena of the therapy session. |
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The goal of this form of supervision is to help the therapist pay attention to the client and the client's choices. |
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There is a place for theorizing but it must always come after direct encounter with the client in the fullness of the client's unique being. |
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Tasks: 1) have therapist accurately describe the clients, 2) attend to the feelings of the supervisee while being with the clients, 3) explore the content of the entire session, 4) link material from one session to material and sequences from previous sessions. |
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In focusing on content one can also concentrate on attending to the first five minutes of the session to see how clients first present. |
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Here the focus is on the choices of intervention made by the therapist-what, when, and why. |
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The aim and goal would be to increase the therapist's choices and skills and intervention. |
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Alternative strategies and interventions might then be developed and their consequences anticipated. |
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Simple brainstorming and active role-playing can generate new options and possibilities. |
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Supervisors need to be aware of dangers in offering their own intervention. It is preferable to help supervisees develop their own improved interventions. |
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The supervisor focuses on the conscious and unconscious interaction between the therapist and client. The supervisor must have the interests of both parties in balance. |
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The main goal is for the therapist to have greater insight and understanding of the dynamics of the therapy relationship. |
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Supervisor might ask, "What is the history of the relationship?" or "What did you first notice about this client?" |
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The supervisor is challenged to listen with a "third ear" to the images, metaphors, and slips. |
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The supervisor is interested in the transference of the client. Plus, the supervisor listens to how the unconscious of the client is informing the therapist about what the client needs and how the therapist is helping or getting in the way. |
The focus is on the internal process of the supervisee and how these are affecting the therapy they are exploring.
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Important to distinguish between the four different types of countertransference: 1) transference feelings of the therapist stirred up by this particular client, 2) feelings and thoughts of the therapist that arise out of playing the role transferred on to him or her by the client, 3) therapist's feelings, thoughts, and actions used to counter the transference of the client, and 4) projected material of the clients that the therapist has taken in somatically, physically, or emotionally. |
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The simplest way to focus on countertransference is for the supervisor to just pose the question, "What is your countertransference to this client?" or use "Checks for Identity." |
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It is important to explore the "ideological editor" which examines the therapist's view of the client through the client's own belief and value system. |
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The supervisor focuses on the relationship in the supervision session in order to explore how it might be unconsciously playing out or paralleling the hidden dynamics of the therapy session. |
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Paralleling is the process at work in the relationship between client and therapist that are uncovered through how they are reflected in the relationship between therapist and supervisor. It serves two purposes: 1) discharging (I will do to you what has been done to me and see how you like it,), and 2) attempting to solve the problem through reenactment. |
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It is the job of the supervisor to name the process and thereby make it available to the conscious exploration and learning. |
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The supervisor pays attention to his or her own here-and-now experience in the supervision_what feelings, thoughts, and images the shared therapy material stirs up in them. |
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The supervisor must examine the fantasy relationship between the client and supervisor. Supervisors may have all sorts of fantasizes about their supervisees' clients even though they have never met them. |
Good supervision involves all six modes, although not necessarily in every session.
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It is important for the supervisor to be aware of the developmental stage and readiness of the individual supervisee to receive different levels of supervision. |
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For example, generally new supervisees need to focus on the content of the work with the clients. |
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Also, consider the supervisee's work, style, personality, degree of openness, trust in supervision relationship, and personal exploration done for the supervisee. |
Take into consideration professional codes and ethics, organizational requirements and constrictions, and other agencies involved.
Describe the Double Matrix Model of supervision.
List 3 out of the 6 modes in the Double Matrix Model and briefly describe each.
How does one link the model to a developmental perspective?
What are your thoughts about applying any one mode or a combination of modes?
Powell, D.J. (1993) Building a Model of Clinical Supervision. In Clinical Supervision in Alcohol and Drug Abuse Counseling (p. 45-57). New York: Lexington Books.
Counseling and supervision begin with a model followed by a method. This chapter describes general outline of models of supervision associated with several leading schools of therapy within a historical context.
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Philosophical Foundation: an underlying viewpoint about people and how they can change with the help of counseling. |
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Descriptive Dimensions: specific characteristics of therapeutic and supervisory practice that follow from the philosophical foundation. |
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Stage of Development: the supervisee and supervisor's level of training, experience, knowledge, and skill. |
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Contextual Factors: characteristics of the client, counselor, supervisor, and setting that affect the environment of supervision. |
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Models of therapy and supervision fall on a continuum between those that foster a process of insight and understanding (attitudinal change) and those that emphasize skill training (behavioral change). |
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An isomorphic relationship exists between an individual's model of therapy and models of supervision. For example, a supervisor who comes out of a psychodynamic background tends to have supervision that resembles analytically oriented therapy. |
| Models of supervision should include philosophical and theoretical issues. Counselors and supervisors should have some rationale for what they do. |
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It provides a valuable tool for understanding how the foundational beliefs of a model are put into practice. |
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Influential: determines whether a client or supervisee is influenced at an affective or cognitive level. |
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Symbolic: deals with whether latent (unconscious) or manifest (overt) content is addressed in counseling and supervision. |
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Structural: describes whether therapy and supervision are spontaneous or planned. |
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Replicative: extent to which the supervisor sees observed interactions as representations of isomorphic processes or as independent. |
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Counselor in Treatment: has to do with whether training and personal therapy is viewed as related or unrelated activities. |
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Information Gathering: contrasts indirect methods of obtaining information with direct observation of therapy sessions. |
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Jurisdictional: a concern who is responsible for client care. The APA has assigned the supervisor with full legal responsibility for the client and supervisee and other disciplines view the supervisor's role as consultative. |
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Relationship: determines whether the counselor of supervisor functions in a facilitative or hierarchical role with respect to the client or supervisee. |
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Strategy: highlights the teaching of theory versus technique in supervision. |
| Under any model of counseling and supervision, the supervisee and supervisor's level of professional development is a major determinant of supervisory practice. |
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Many situational variables enter into the equation including: 1) supervisor, 2) supervisee, 3) client, 4) setting, and 5) training program. |
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The work setting affects every aspect of supervision. |
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1950's-early models of supervision adopted psychodynamic emphasis. |
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1960's and 1970's-therapy and supervision was based on either Roger's client-centered approach, or it took a behavioral/cognitive approach. |
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1970's-Caplan described supervision as a consultative process, a collaborative rather than therapeutic relationship. |
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1980's-solution-focused, task-oriented, and technique-oriented therapies influenced supervision. |
Alcohol and drug abuse counseling began in the 1970's, when behavioral and cognitive therapies were in their ascendancy. It has featured a strong skills-oriented component. In the 1980's "Model Standards for Alcoholism Counselors" listed 260 skills for counselors to master. At the same time a new field rooted in spirituality and the search for understanding was evolving. Since the late 80's there have been attempts to strike a balance between the two extremes.
List and briefly describe 3 out of the 4 elements in a model of clinical supervision.
Where do you place yourself on the continuum described in the article?
Why is the stage of professional development of the supervisor and supervisee important?
How does a supervisor's primary theoretical orientation utilized in working with clients affect supervision?
Powell, D.J. (1993) Ethical and Legal Concerns. In Clinical Supervision in Alcohol and Drug Abuse Counseling (p. 216-230). New York: Lexington Books
Overviews of the larger ethical and legal themes of the supervisory relationship are provided. This dimension of supervision encompasses the supervisor and supervisee's ethical obligations to each other, as well as the supervisor's responsibility to monitor the ethical conduct of the supervisee.
Supervisors are constantly making ethical choices, many of which have legal ramifications. But of more constant and immediate concern to supervisors are the day-to-day behaviors of clinicians that stray into ethical boundary zones-all of which are issues to manage in supervision. Supervisors are responsible for the professional development of those whom they train. These responsibilities involve the supervisor in issues such as informed consent, confidentiality, duty to warn, boundary maintenance, dual relationships, social and sexual intimacies with clients, misrepresentations, and professional credibility.
Ethical and legal concerns are central to supervision for several reasons:
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Supervision is a training experience in which one learns the practice of counseling, therapy, and ethical principles. |
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The supervisory relationship involves inherent inequalities of status, power, and expertise. It is therefore vulnerable to abuse. |
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The supervisory relationship also resembles therapy insofar as self-evaluation occurs in conjunction with assessment by an authoritative figure. |
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A supervisor, as well as the employing agency, may be held responsible for inadequate supervision of a counselor whose negligence causes harm to others. |
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A dual relationship occurs when one person interacts with another in more than one capacity at the same time, so as to suggest the possibility of an ethical compromise or conflict of interest. |
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Supervisors should make every effort to avoid relationships that could impair their professional judgment or increase risk of exploitation. |
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Boundaries and Guidelines: |
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Sexual involvement is an unequivocal and unethical exploitation of the supervisory role. |
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One does not supervise one's spouse. |
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A supervisor is not to act as the supervisee's personal therapist. |
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A supervisor should not sponsor a supervisee in AA. |
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Supervisors and supervisees who are friends should maintain boundaries carefully. |
| Dilemmas at the Boundaries: |
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The "only game in town" syndrome. |
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The "we grew up together" syndrome. |
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"Two-hatter" issues for substance abuse counselors and supervisors. |
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What should I tell about myself? |
| Ask yourself three questions to assist in making responsible decisions: |
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Is it legal? |
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Is it balanced? |
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How will I feel about it myself? |
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Clinicians should "only provide services and use techniques for which they are qualified by training and experience." |
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Supervisors must decide when a supervisee is competent to use techniques and skills. |
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Clients must be informed that they are being counseled by trainees. |
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Supervisors should be honest and should disclose to supervisees when they are new to a particular task as well. |
Evaluation
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It is the responsibility of the supervisor to provide counselors with feedback when there are serious concerns about their clinical skills and practice. |
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The feedback should include a written statement, reviewed by both parities, of the supervisee's strengths and weaknesses. |
Respect
| Supervisors must give supervisees the same respect and dignity they do with clients with regard to confidentialities, fair treatment, clarity of expectations, and boundary setting. Race, ethnicity, social, religious, and political diversity should be honored as well. |
Informed Consent
| The supervisor has a responsibility to a client to ensure that the client is informed of the supervisory process, the means of observation, and voluntary consent. |
Confidentiality
| Information obtained in a clinical or consulting relationship is discussed only for professional purposes and only with persons clearly concerned with the case. |
To uphold professional standards of practice.
To recognize and deal with personal problems when they interfere with clinical effectiveness.
To treat the supervisor with respect and dignity.
To treat the information shared in supervision with the highest degree of confidentiality.
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Supervisors and clinics must consider a host of legal and regulatory ramifications in their daily practice, mainly focusing on mandatory disclosures and failure to warn. |
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The supervisor assumes clinical responsibility, much as if the client were under her/his own personal care-this is known as the doctrine of vicarious liability. |
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The supervisor must follow guidelines with regard to violence or threat of violence. |
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The supervisor must ensure the quality of care, and document that a reasonable effort was made to supervise the staff. The best way to demonstrate this supervisory involvement is through consultation and documentation. |
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Supervision should be scheduled on a regular basis, and the supervisor should maintain a personal record of dates, times, and clinical issues discussed. |
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The supervisor should make assessments of severely disturbed or dangerous clients. |
Provide 3 ethical and legal concerns that are central to supervision.
Describe dual relationships and how they are problematic.
Explain how issues of professional credibility influence supervision and the supervisor's role in this process.
Describe vicarious liability and how a supervisor can take steps to protect herself/himself against ethical and legal consequences.
Hawkins, P. & Shohet, R. (1989) Group, Team, and Peer-Group Supervision. In Supervision in the Helping Professions. (p. 95-108). Philadelphia: Open University Press.
Group supervision has many advantages over individual supervision in the range of possible learning opportunities and different perspectives that it can provide. It has some pitfalls as well. Those leading supervision groups need to be aware of and work with the group dynamics and this necessitates that they have some training in group leadership.
Advantages
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It makes economical use of time, money, and expertise. |
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It provides a supportive atmosphere of peers where one can realize that others are facing similar issues. |
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Supervisees gain reflections, feedback, sharing, and input from their colleagues as well as the group supervisor. |
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A group can provide a way for the supervisor to test out her/his emotional or intuitive response to the material presented by checking if other group members have the same response. Paralleling in groups leads to a variety of responses from different members. |
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It provides a wider range of life experiences and thus there is more likelihood of someone in the group being able to empathize with both the supervisee and the client. |
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Groups can use action techniques as part of the supervision: 1) reenactment, 2) sculpting, 3) role-reversal, and 4) Brandenburg Concerto. |
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Supervisees can learn from how the supervisor runs the group and how the dynamics of the client groups are mirrored in the supervision group. |
Disadvantages
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It is less likely to mirror the dynamics of individual therapy as clearly as individual supervision. |
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Group dynamics can be destructive and undermining. For example, a competitive spirit or preoccupation can develop. |
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There is less time for each person to receive supervision. |
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Clarity of purpose and needs should be carefully considered, as should the range of experiences and skills. |
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The group needs to have similar types of clients, general theoretical approaches, and level of accomplishment. |
| The group supervisor needs to manage the contracting_1) time factor, 2) number of clients that can be supervised, 3) goals, 4) role of supervisor, 5) content, 6) evaluation procedures, and 7) confidentiality. |
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The climate must be one that encourages a sharing of vulnerabilities and anxieties without group members being put down or turned into a "group patient." |
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Avoid good advice. |
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Self-disclosure can feel safer if the group supervisor also shares some of her/his insecurities. |
The supervisor must find a way to bring the group dynamics into awareness so they can be attended to and learned from.
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This depends on the type and size of the group as well as its own style and inclination. |
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Examples include: starting each supervision session with a round of each group member stating what issues the member wants to bring, dividing the group time equally between all those present, arranging a schedule in advance, or trusting the process and waiting to see what emerges and where the interest of the group moves. |
It is very important that supervisors be aware of how they are modeling ways of responding to material. Group members will most likely take their lead from the group supervisor and make interventions with a similar style and focus.
Team supervision involves working with a group just for the purpose of joint supervision, and have an interrelated work life outside the group. Some teams share clients (residential setting or mental health team in a psychiatric hospital) and others have separate clients (field social work team).
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Group selection is important. It is necessary to decide where the boundary of the team is drawn. |
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There is a need for teams to have some degree of homogeneity, but teams also need a balance in their personality types, age, gender, and skills. |
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The team can be considered as an entity needing supervision itself. The supervisor needs to explore the team culture or team dynamics. Supervision needs to involve some form of team development. |
Many professionals cannot obtain good supervision, as their immediate line senior has neither the time nor the ability to supervise them. Peer supervision is a positive possibility. It can be either individually or in a group of workers with similar needs. It is possible to look for peer supervisors not only within your immediate workplace but also in similar workplaces. A peer triad meets the needs of some as well. However, be aware that in the absence of a group leader there is a great need for a firm and clear structure and it requires greater commitment from the group members.
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"Measuring clocks"-mine is better than yours. |
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"Ain't it awful!"-reinforcing each other's sense of powerlessness. |
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"We are all so wonderful"-avoid having each other's anxieties criticized or explored. |
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"Who is the best supervisor?"-undisclosed competition to fill the void by not having a group supervisor. |
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"Hunt the patient"- making one group member to be the patient and the focus of difficult feelings. |
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Try to form a group that has shared values but a range of approaches. |
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The group needs to be no more than seven people. Ensure that there is enough time to meet the needs of all members. |
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Be clear about commitment. |
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Make a clear contract about frequency, time, place, confidentiality, how time will be allocated, and how the process is to be managed. |
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Be clear about different expectations. |
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Be clear about role expectations. |
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Build some time into each meeting to give feedback on how the supervision process is going for each person. |
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Plan to have a review session every three months when all members receive and give feedback. |
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Set ground rules. |
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Either start each session by discovering who has what needs or have a set rotation system for allocating time. |
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Encourage all the members to be clear about what they need from the group in relation to what they are sharing. |
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Decide about informal time. |
What are four advantages and 2 disadvantages to group supervision?
Identify and briefly discuss 5 aspects to consider when arranging group supervision.
Briefly describe peer supervision and list 4 format principles.
Compare and contrast group supervision and team supervision.
Group supervision can be particularly effective, providing many rich and different perspectives on clinical issues. However, it can also be very anxiety provoking, and challenges the supervisor to manage not only the process of individual supervision, but also the overall development of the group as a whole. The following model is particularly useful for supervision groups at early stages of their development. The emphasis on structure and the provision of information helps allay the anxieties associated with group supervision, all parties being clear as to the agenda and aware of what is likely to occur next.
Groups at later stages of development may find the model too restrictive or prescriptive, although it can provide a firm foundation for later group development. The role of the facilitator is prescribed; in practice the role may be allocated to a different group member in turn each session. This has benefits for the development of group leadership skills for each participant in turn. This model has the additional benefit that those providing supervisory feedback receive `feedback on their feedback', which provides a opportunity for the development of their own supervisory skills.
| Stage | Description | Activity | Facilitator's role |
| Stage 1 |
Information presentation /Plea for help
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The supervisee provides the group with a summary of relevant background information relevant to the supervision. This may be in the form of audio or video recorded session material, a written transcript or verbal report. The supervisee makes a `plea for help' that is, makes a request for the nature of help required from the group. This may be general, or may be specific in asking a particular person for specific feedback. |
The facilitator keeps time boundaries, monitors the agenda and protects the space (environmental and psychological) for the presentation of clinical material. Encourages and supports the supervisee in arriving at a realistic and understandable question. |
| Stage 2 | Question Period | Group members encourage the supervisees clarity through requests for clarification or for additional information. | The facilitator protects the supervisee from overload by ensuring questions are asked in an orderly manner, and that time is allowed for the supervisee to respond fully to each question before the next is asked. Protects the supervisee from overenthusiastic or competitive questioning, which may be a manifestation of group storming. |
| Stage 3 | Feedback/consultation |
Feedback is structured from each group member along the lines of `If this were my client, I would…' This process is repeated until there is no more feedback. The supervisee may keep notes. |
The facilitator monitors the process to ensure feedback remains relevant, and that any secondary conversations among the group do not detract from the task. Monitors the supervisee for signs of being overwhelmed or `overfed' and helps them structure the feedback so it may be heard and assimilated. |
| Stage 4 | Break period | A period of reflection for about 10 or 15 minutes where the supervisee reflects upon the groups feedback and prepares for stage 4. Tea and biscuits welcomed here! |
The facilitator protects the reflective space from intrusion by last-minute suggestions. May encourage conversation among other group members. |
| Stage 5 |
Response statement |
The group members remain silent while the supervisee goes around each group member, responding in turn to their feedback. Other group members do not respond at this time. |
The facilitator encourages the supervisee to provide descriptive feedback about what was helpful or interesting. |
| Stage 6 | Process analysis | An overview of the four-stage process and possible exploration of the group dynamics. | The facilitator discusses the process, allows opportunity for group members to respond in general terms to the supervisee's `feedback on their feedback'. Manages structure such as time of next meeting. Arranges next facilitator. |
Source: Adapted from Wilbur, M.P., Roberts-Wilbur, J., Hart, G.M., Morris, J.R. & Betz, R.L. (1994) Structured Group Supervision (SGS): A pilot study. Counsellor education and supervision, 33, 262-279. Alexandria, VA.: American Counselling Association.
Jacobs, C. (1991). Violations of the supervisory relationship: An ethical and educational blind spot. Social Work, 36(2).
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Article discusses students-supervisory relationship |
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Role of supervisor often described as "professional parent" who instructs, supports, and nurtures students in the formative phases of their professional development. |
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Hierarchical relationship-powerful person (supervisor) is entrusted with the well- being of less powerful person (trainee). |
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Supervisor can experience anxiety around the power inherent in supervisory role. |
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Supervisor is vulnerable to using the power to gratify his or her own self-esteem needs. |
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Supervisors' job satisfaction level can often influence the way in which they use their power. |
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People in power define reality-huge power advantage. |
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Exploitation of student by supervisor is associated with role reversals or "parentification of the student" whereby needs of the supervisor supersede needs of the student. Dual role relationships and boundary violations are hallmarks of more serious exploitation. |
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Two markers of exploitative supervisory relationships: |
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sexual contact |
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personal counseling of supervisee |
| Transference and countertransference reactions |
In the context of the supervisory relationship:
Transference refers to the feelings the student experiences in association with a supervisor that are actually displaced feelings, that originated in an earlier relationship in the student's life.
Countertransference refers to displaced feelings that the supervisor experiences in association with the students that have their origin in an earlier relationship in the supervisor's life.
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The supervisor should prepare student for such feelings otherwise the transference/countertransference reactions can disrupt the working relationship with the supervisor. |
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Beware of unconditional reassurance. It is important that students be reassured that such reactions are reasonable and "normal." However, unconditional reassurance can communicate the message that uncomfortable feelings that occur in the supervisory relationship do not warrant further discussion. When discussion is avoided, whose interests are really being protected? Presumably the student's but more often it is the supervisor protecting his/her own interests. |
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Interaction replication: |
At the beginning of clinical training, student is introduced to a power relationship that is emotionally loaded in three respects:
Student-supervisor relationship replicates aspects of early parent-child interactions and may generate feelings similar to those experienced as a child (e.g., helplessness, dependency, disappointment, and rage).
Training process involves renegotiation of the developmental task of separation and individuation in a professional arena.
Students in supervision may try to conceptualize the very phenomena they are experiencing and emotionally defending themselves against, with both didactic and reactive processes operating in the same supervisory relationship. This occurs because student/supervisory relationship is structurally similar to client-therapist relationship students are trying to understand in different ways.
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Supervisory relationships can become sexualized work that is being done and can generate feelings of great intimacy that is distorted by transference. |
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Supervisors are responsible for ensuring that boundaries are respected. |
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Boundary violations can have severe emotional repercussions for both the supervisor and student. |
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Students are emotionally vulnerable and are therefore in a poor position to advocate for themselves should the boundaries of the relationship break down. |
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Clinical programs that provide students with an understanding of the supervision experience before the fact, including signs of dysfunction, will better enable students to identify any dysfunctional transference and countertransference aspects of the training experience before an abusive relationship develops. |
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Contribution of secrecy to a dysfunctional relationship |
Silence about important issues creates secretive atmosphere. Violations of the student-supervisory relationship are very dangerous because they carry this burden of secrecy, which constitutes major obstacle to getting help.
Discussions about transference and countertransference in the supervisory relationship can be difficult and hazardous to both parties. Topic may seem seductive and can be stressful interaction for a supervisor whose role includes ethical responsibility for maintaining safe boundaries. Students may take on caretaking role sensing supervisors' stress and discomfort and thereby collude in the silence.
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Two major consequences of a dysfunctional relationship |
students miss extraordinary opportunity to learn about their own interactional style with people in positions of authority;
a situation is established that is particularly conducive to the development of abuse in the supervisory relationship.
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To protect students as they negotiate this training relationship social work educators must empower them to talk about their experiences and listen to their stories. |
| Supervisors are ultimately responsible for the maintenance of an emotionally safe workplace. Students must be encouraged to monitor their feelings and reactions to ensure their emotional protection and well being. Certain questions for students to ask themselves help in this process. |
| Boundaries between supervisor and student may become particularly unclear as student disengages from the process either prematurely or naturally. Must negotiate relationship from student to collegial status. |
What are the two consequences of a dysfunctional student-supervisor relationship, and how can they be avoided?
ASSIGNMENTS: Module III
What has been or might be the most difficult obstacle for you in making the transition from practitioner to supervisor and/or combining these roles?
What ethical issues have you confronted related to role conflicts/expectations in your practice?
In your experience, how has the administrative function and the educational function of supervision been operationalized and with what effect?
In general do you think of yourself as a leader? What if anything is uncomfortable about that notion? What do you like about the possibility of assuming more leadership in your agency/profession?
What tools or techniques have you grown to appreciate as a supervisor/supervisee?
Describe your communication style. Consider the strengths in your style and areas that you would like to refine or strengthen.
What are the advantages of Powell and Shulman's models?
What do you consider to be the value in conceptualizing your own model of supervision?
What is the advantage of supervisory focus on worker activity vs. focus on the worker?
An Interactional Approach to Supervision Study Questions
What are the purposes for a social work supervisor?
What is the underlying basis for interactional supervision?
Where does the supervisor fit in with the worker and the system?
A Developmental Approach to Supervision Study Questions
List and describe the 3 levels of counselor development.
List and describe the 3 levels of supervisor development.
Making the Shift From Practice to Administration Study Questions
List the 6 role tasks for a clinician and administrator.
What is the relationship between the first role task and the systems perspective?
What are the concepts of Blackwell as a social system?
A Process Model of Supervision Study Questions
Describe the Double Matrix Model of Supervision.
List 3 out of the 6 modes in the Double Matrix Model and briefly describe each.
How does one link the model to a developmental perspective?
What are your thoughts about applying any one mode or a combination of modes?
Building a Model of Clinical Supervision Study Questions
List and briefly describe 3 out of the 4 elements in a model of clinical supervision.
Where do you place yourself on the continuum described in the article?
Why is the stage of professional development of the supervisor and supervisee important?
How does a supervisor's primary theoretical orientation utilized in working with clients affect supervision?
Ethical and Legal Concerns Study Questions
Provide 3 ethical and legal concerns that are central to supervision.
Describe dual relationships and how they are problematic.
Explain how issues of professional credibility influence supervision and the supervisor's role in this process.
Describe vicarious liability and how a supervisor can take steps to protect herself/ himself against ethical and legal consequences.
Group, Team, and Peer-Group Supervision Study Questions
What are the advantages and disadvantages to group supervision?
Identify and briefly discuss 5 aspects to consider when arranging group supervision.
Briefly describe peer supervision and list 4 format principles.
Compare and contrast group supervision and team supervision.
Violations of the Supervisory Relationship Study Questions
Explain the two hazards of a student-supervisor relationship.
What are the two consequences of a dysfunctional student-supervisor relationship, and how can they be avoided?
Powell indicates that a model of supervision has a number of layers: philosophical foundation, descriptive dimensions, contextual factors, and staff development (both of supervisee and supervisor). Powell sees the focus of supervision as behavioral change and skill acquisition. In other words, he believes the emphasis should be on helping staff learn "how to use oneself in counseling to promote behavioral change in the client". Powell notes that models of supervision have tended to emphasize either skill development or the emotional/interpersonal dynamics and self-discovery of the worker. In chemical dependency, the emphasis has been on skill development. Newer models have incorporated both. He advises professionals to develop their own model of supervision in order to understand what one is doing and why.
