Module 5

Objectives:

1. Develop a teaching plan selecting appropriate content, teaching methodologies and instructional media
2. Understand the importance and principles of test and evaluation in teaching
3. Cite the requisites of a good test
4. Define the content validity, reliability, and objectivity
5. Identify the different types of examinations, their uses, advantages, and disadvantages
6. Develop skills in writing/constructing a good test item
7. Identify the characteristics of an effective teacher

TEACHING PLANS

To achieve the goals and objectives set forth, developing a teaching plan is so important. This is to let the teacher examine the relationships among the steps of the teaching process to ensure a logical approach to teaching, to communicate in writing and in an outline format what is being taught, how it is being delivered and evaluated inc1uding the time allotted for the attainment of behavioral objectives.

A teaching plan is basically composed of the following parts:

1. Purpose
   Ex. To provide student with information necessary for insulin administration

2. Goal Statement
   Ex. The student will be able to perform insulin injections

3. List of Objectives
   Ex. After I-hour teaching session, the student will be able to:
1. Cognitive: identify the different sites for insulin injections with 100% accuracy
2. Psychomotor: give insulin using the deltoid muscle
3. Affective: demonstrate confidence in giving insulin injections

4. Content Outline
   Ex. Anatomical sites for insulin injections/rotation sites, materials/equipment needed, techniques and procedures in insulin administration.

5. Methods of Presentation
   Ex. Lecture-discussion, demonstration, practice/drill

6. Time Frame
   Ex. 15 minutes for discussion, 30 minutes for demonstration, 15 minutes for practice

7. Instructional Resources
   Ex. Anatomical chart, human model, video, materials & equipment for insulin administration, PowerPoint slides presentation, handouts

8. Method of Evaluation
   Ex. Return demonstration, summative test

CONSIDERATIONS IN DEVELOPING A TEACHING PLAN

1. Understanding the Needs of Learners
1. The cultural domains of the learners should be considered
2. The topic should be tailored and important to a diverse group of learners.
3. Strategies should be used to recruit a diverse group of learners that reflects the target population of learners
4. Self-assessment tools/pretests should match the learners from diverse groups
   
   
2. Specific Objectives
1. Objectives reflect the realistic needs of the practice setting
2. Expected outcomes should be made clear to all learners
3. Learners should have the prerequisite knowledge• to meet the objective
   
   
3. Content
1. The content should include multiple perspectives
2. The teacher should be adequately prepared to present the content
3. Speakers from diverse backgrounds should be invited to participate and share their experiences
4. Adequate time should be allotted for topics, active participation, and sharing of ideas
5. Content should reflect regional and national healthcare needs
   
   
4. Teaching Strategies
1. Teaching strategies should include a variety of active approaches
2. Clinical experiences should provide learners with encounters with diverse groups
3. Class assignments should maximize on the benefits of sharing diverse backgrounds and  expertise
4. Language and literacy issues should be addressed
5. Learners should understand the meaning of class participation as an expected behavior
6. Audiovisuals and handouts should be culturally appropriate

LESSON PLANNING

Lesson Planning is an integral part of teaching in all levels of school system. Planning is made because it results in better teaching and more productive learning. A lesson plan serves as compass that directs the teacher and the learner to the point of destination or goals to be accomplished. A well-taught lessons are the results of careful planning.

A lesson plan furnishes the teacher a clear comprehension of the main objectives which a subject or course seeks to realize. It gives a general overview of the goals to be achieved and the learning experiences to be provided for the day, week, a term, a semester or year. In other words, it provides the general framework for the work of the day or term that will be carried out.

Types of Lesson Planning

1. Course Plan
   Gives a general overview of the goals to be achieved and the learning experiences to be provided for the term, semester or year.
   
   This is a long-range plan. It provides the general framework within which the coursework for the term, quarter, or semester will be carried out.
   
   In course planning the following elements ate to be considered:
1. stating the general aims or goals of the course
2. defining the broad scope and sequence of learning experiences
3. outlining the possible teaching units

2. The Daily Lesson Plan
   This refers to each day plan dealing with the specific part of the unit during the given class period
.

An ordinary daily lesson plan contains the following elements:

1. general and specific aims to be accomplished.
2. subject matter to be taught or activities to be performed
3. methods or procedures to be used to accomplish the aims•
4. criteria for evaluation to appraise the success of teaching and learning
other activities such as assignment, projects, and references to be used by the class

Basic Steps in Lesson Planning

1. Formulating goals or aims to accomplish
   Aims should be specific, attainable, and related, to the instructional objectives of the program
   
   
2. Selecting and organizing subject matter
   The teacher should anticipate what situations are to be met, what materials, activities, information, understanding and skills are necessary to achieve the goals (mastery of the subject matter by the teacher is essential in planning the work)
   
   
3. Determining methods or procedures in planning
   The method or procedure to be used is often determined by the aims to be accomplished, the nature and difficulty of subject matter, and the ability and experiences of the learners. Likewise, the equipment and devices available are to be taken into consideration
   
   
4. Evaluating the effectiveness of the procedure
   Intelligent teaching requires evaluation - to determine what has been done in terms of the objectives or aims established
   
   
5. Revision of plan
   If the teacher is evaluating the day-by-day achievement of the learners, he/she will also be able to revise the lesson plan constantly to make learning more productive
   
   
6. Giving the Assignment Homework
   To give the learner definite work to do, to guide and stimulate them to the performance of work which will result in educative experience.

Stages of Lesson Planning

Stage 1: Lesson Planning and Implementation

1. Unit title/topic
2. Instructional goals and objectives
3. Content
4. Instructional procedures
5. Evaluation procedures
6. Materials

Stage 2: Post-Lesson Activities

A. Lesson evaluation and revision

The elements of your lesson plan should be thought of as guiding principles to be applied as aids to systematic instruction. Precise preparation must allow for flexible delivery. During actual classroom interaction, the instructor needs to make adaptations and to add artistry to each lesson plan and classroom delivery.

TESTS AND EVALUATION IN TEACHING

Testing or examinations should be considered as essential part instruction. Testing serves to guide learning procedures. It will enable the teacher not only to measure the extent and degree of learning that results from study and teaching, but also to note weaknesses and defects as revealed by the diagnosis. Tests furnish data disclosing the learning that has taken place with respect to items of information, concepts, and appreciation.

Well-constructed tests motivate students and reinforce learning. Well-constructed tests enable teachers to assess the students’ mastery of course objectives.

PRINCIPLES IN EVALUATING TEACHING AND LEARNING

Evaluation to be effective must be based on the following general principles:

1. Evaluation must be conceived in terms of the educational purpose of teaching and learning.
2. Evaluation must be based on the clear concept of the aims of the course or program of study.
3. Evaluation should be comprehensive.
4. Evaluation should be continuous and must be made integral part of all teaching and learning.
5. Evaluation should be functional.
6. Evaluation should be cooperative.
7. Evaluation should be based on accepted criteria or standard.
8. Evaluation should be diagnostic
9. Evaluation should be based on the accepted principles of validity; reliability, objectivity, and appropriateness.
10. Evaluation must consider all aspects of school and community life that affect the growth of each learner.

PURPOSE OF TESTING

1. To provide a record for assigning grades
2. To provide a learning experience for students
3. To motivate students to learn
4. To communicate to students their level of understanding of the course objectives
5. Serve as a guide for further study
6.  when utilizing pretests, feedback is provided regarding the knowledge students bring to the content
7. To assess how well students are achieving the stated goals and course objectives
8. To provide the instructor with an opportunity to reinforce the stated objectives and highlight what is important for students to remember

REQUISITES OF GOOD TESTS

1. Validity
   -a test is valid when it measures what is supposed or intended to be measured the validity of the test depends upon the purpose of the test
   -a diagnostic test to be valid, should measure the weakness or defects of the students in a given subject
   
   
2. Reliability
   -refers to the degree accuracy of measurement
   -a test is reliable when the scores are constant or when it possesses a fair degree of accuracy
   -may be determined by using the same test twice with the same group of students under the same condition'
   -if the test is reliable, each student should make approximately the same score each time
   
   
3. Objectivity
   -a test is objective when personal opinion is eliminated from the scoring
   -a question given in an objective test has but one possible answer, and the total score is determined solely by the number of correct answers given
   -the true-or-false and multiple-choice types of questions are highly objective
   
   
4. Language Appropriateness
   -test questions should reflect the language that is used in the classroom
   -test items should be stated in simple, clear language, free of nonfunctional material and extraneous clues
   -test items should be free of race, ethnic, and sex bias
   
   
5. Ease of Administration and Scoring
   -this refers to the ease in giving and taking the examination, as well as in correcting and scoring the examination papers
   -the directions should be understandable and easily followed by the test-takers a poorly administered test gives the students much opportunity to cheat
   
   
6. Utility
   -a test possesses utility to the extent that it satisfactorily serves a definite need in the situation in which it is used
   -the teacher must make use of the results of the test to improve the student's ability
   
   
7. Establishing a Fixed Norm
   -this refers to the establishment of a standard by which the results achieved may be interpreted
   -the use of the norm has been associated with the standard test of one form or another
   -the norms is useful as a basis of interpretation and comparison
   
   
8. Economical
   -economy involves both time and money, and therefore, simple equipment, carefully selected items that obtain wide sampling without an excessive number of items, and ease of scoring, are essential to save time
   
   
9. Comparability
   -a test possesses comparability when it makes possible a comparison between a student's score in one testing

Important Considerations:

1. Maintain consistency between goals for the course, methods of teaching, and the tests used to measure achievement of goals. If, for example, class time emphasizes review and recall of information, then so should the test; if class time emphasizes analysis and synthesis, then the test should be designed to demonstrate how well students have learned these things.
2. Most students will assume that the test is designed to measure what is most important for them to learn in the course. Help students prepare for the test by clarifying course goals, and use the test to reinforce what you most want students to learn.
3. As much as possible~ design test items that allow students to show degrees of learning. That is, students who have not fully mastered everything in the course should still be able to demonstrate how much they. have learned.
4. Use consistent language (in stating goals, in talking in class, and in writing test questions) to describe expected outcomes. If you want to use words like explain or discuss, be sure that you use them consistently and that students know what you mean when you use them•
5. Use testing methods that are appropriate to learning goals. For example, a multiple choice test might be useful for demonstrating memory and recall, for example, but it may require an essay or open-ended problem-solving for students to demonstrate more independent analysis or synthesis

ASSESSING YOUR TEST

Regardless of the kind of exams you use, you can assess their effectiveness through the following guidelines:

1. Did I test for what I thought I was testing for?
2. Did I test what I taught?
3. Did I test for what I emphasized in class?
4. Is the material I tested for really what I wanted students to learn?

TYPES OF EXAMINATIONS

1. Objective Types
   -the main objective of this type of examination is to avoid the element of subjective judgment and to increase the objectivity and accuracy of measuring the results of learning
   -require students to select the correct response from several alternatives or to supply a word or short phrase to answer a question or complete a statement
   -include multiple-choice, true-or-false, matching, and completion
   
   
2. Subjective Types
   -permit the student to organize and present an original answer
   -short-answer essay, extended response essay, problem-solving, and performance test items

1. Multiple-Choice Questions(Bloom's Levels: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis)
• Multiple-choice items present a question and ask students to choose from a list of possible answers
• Most multiple-choice questions feature one correct answer, and two to four "distracter" choices  that are not correct.
• Questions can take the form of incomplete sentences, statements, or complex scenarios

Advantages:
• Multiple-choice questions are the most versatile of the closed ended question types
• This versatility stems from the fact that the questions can contain more elaborate scenarios that require careful consideration on the part of the student
• The probability of student guessing is also relatively low
• Can cover broad range of content

Disadvantages:
• When compared to true/false and matching, multiple-choice items can be more challenging to write
• They also require the creation of plausible "destructors," or incorrect answer options.
• As with other closed-ended questions, multiple-choice assesses recognition over recall
• Difficult to construct good test items

2. True/False Questions (Bloom's Levels: application, knowledge, comprehension)
• True/false questions present a statement, and prompt the student to choose whether the statement is truthful
• Students typically have a great deal of experience with this type of question

Advantages:
• True/false questions are among the easiest to write and can be scored electronically
• Students can answer 3-4 questions per minute

Disadvantages:
• They have a relatively high probability of student guessing the correct answer (50%)
• True/false also assesses recognition of information, as opposed to recall
• Students have a 50-50 chance of getting the right answer by guessing .
• It needs a large number of items for high reliability

3. Matching Questions (Bloom's Level: knowledge, application)
• Matching questions involve paired lists that require students to correctly identify, or match the relationship between the items

Advantages:
• There is a maximum coverage at knowledge level in a minimum amount of space
• Matching items can assess a large amount of information in a confined space on the exam page
• If developed carefully, the probability of guessing is low
• To decrease that probability further, avoid equal-sized lists by including a few "distractor" items in the second (answer) column.

Disadvantages:
• Matching assesses recognition rather than recall of information
• Time consuming for students
• May not be appropriate for higher levels of learning

3. Short-Answer Questions (Bloom's Levels: knowledge, comprehension, application)
• Short-answer questions are "constructed-response," or open-ended questions that require students to an answer
• Short-answer items typically require responses of one word to a few sentences•
• Fill in the blank and completion questions are examples of short-answer question types

Advantages:
• Short-answer questions assess unassisted recall of information, rather than recognition
• Compared to essay questions, they are relatively easy to write

Disadvantages:
• Short-answer items are only suitable for questions that can be answered with short responses
• Because students are free to answer any way they choose, short-answers lead to difficulties in scoring if the question is not worded carefully.
• ? It's important when writing short-answer questions that the desired student response clear

4. Fill-in-the-Blank Test Items (Bloom's Levels: knowledge, recall and memorization)
• Completion items are especially useful in assessing mastery of factual information when a specific word or phrase is important to know
• They preclude the kind of guessing that is possible on limited choice items since they require a definite response rather than simple recognition of the correct answer
• Because only a short answer is required, their use on a test can enable a wide sampling of content

Advantages:
• Good for who, what, where, when content ~Minimize guessing
• Encourage more intensive study
• Student must know the answer vs. recognizing .the answer
• Can usually provide an objective measure of student achievement or ability

Disadvantages:
• Difficult to assess higher levels of learning because the answers to completion items
• are usually limited to a few words
• Difficult to construct so that the desired response is clearly indicated
• May overemphasize memorization of facts
• Questions may have more than one correct answer ~Scoring is time consuming.

5. Problem Solving Items
• An essay is not the only form of a subjective test item
• Another form is the problem solving or computational exam question
• Such items present the student with a problem situation or task and require a demonstration of work procedures
• Problem solving is classified as subjective due to the procedures used to score item responses

Advantages:
• Minimize guessing by requiring the students to provide an original response rather than to select from several alternatives.
• Easier to construct than are multiple choice or matching items
• Can most appropriately measure objectives which focus on the ability to apply skills or knowledge in the solution of problems
• Can measure an extensive amount of content or objectives

Disadvantages:
• Require an extensive amount of instructor time to read/grade
• Subject to scorer bias when partial credit is given

ALTERNATIVE TESTING MODES

1. Take-Home Tests
• Take-home tests allow students to work at their own pace with access to books and materials
• Take-home tests also permit longer and more involved questions, without sacrificing valuable class time for exams
• Problem sets, short answers, and essays are the most appropriate kinds of take-home exams .
• The instructor should avoid designing a take-home exam that is too difficult or an exam that does not include limits on the number of words or time spent
2. Open-Book Tests
• On an open-book test, students who are lacking basic knowledge may waste much of their time consulting their references rather than writing
• Open-book tests appear to reduce stress, but research shows that students do not necessarily perform significantly better on open-book tests

WRITING GOOD TEST ITEMS

As you can see a lot of creativity, originality, and knowledge go into writing an item. Here are some rules of thumb that may help:

1. Identify item topics by consulting the test plan
2. Be sure each item is based on an important learning objective or topic
3. Write items that assess information or skills drawn only from your testing universe
4. Write each item as clearly and directly as possible
5. Use appropriate language
6. Try to make all items independent
7. Include simple test instructions or directions
8. Avoid splitting a test item between two different pages
9. Leave the appropriate amount of space for each item
10. Leave wide enough margins for your comments, points, etc.
11. Group similar items together
12. If it is a large exam, it might be worthwhile to group items according to content as well
13. Start with your easiest items in each section
14. Ask someone to review the items

THINGS TO DO AFTER THE TEST

1. Return exams promptly
2. Post a corrected copy immediately after the exam
3. When you return a test make sure the score is not showing
4. Give feedback to the class as a whole regarding the following:
   -items most missed
   -mistakes most frequently made
   -what was done particularly well
5. When going over the test with the class, ask the students to refer to their class notes
6. Let students know when they have improved, even if it did-not result in extremely high marks
7. To account for missed tests/quizzes you might want to drop the lowest quiz score ordouble the highest quiz score
8. Provide breaks during long tests
9. Give test if necessary

EFFECTIVE TEACHING

Effective teachers of adult learners have been observed, and their methods have been recorded and analyzed. Comparisons have been made between effective teachers and those who are less effective. Out of this extensive collection of data, certain conclusions have been made regarding the science of teaching. Some of these conclusions are as follows:

1. Effective teaching takes place when the teacher is organized and ready to make wise use of class time in such a way as to keep students focused on ~he material being taught.
2. Effective teaching occurs when the teacher is well prepared and knowledgeable about the subject and treats the content of the class instruction as important and worthy of being learned.
3. Effective teaching is seen when the teacher builds class instruction around a proven model of instruction. Use of such a model brings structure and sequence to teaching, and provides a framework for the efficient development of skills and concepts. When students are made aware of what they are to learn as well as why and how they are to learn it, their motivation improves and they tend to assume a greater responsibility for their own learning.
4. Teaching is more effective when the teacher holds high expectations for students. When this expectation level is realistic and is communicated to students, student performance improves. The teacher who exhibits confidence in his or her students' ability to achieve will see improved performance. This expectation level is also important in terms of the teacher's self-expectations.

PRINCIPLES FOR EFFECTIVE ADULT LEARNING

1. Needs assessment - participation of the learner in naming what is to be learned
2. Safety in the environment between teacher and learner for learning and development
3. A sound relationship between teacher and learner for learning and development
4. Careful attention to sequence of content and reinforcement
5. Action with reflection or learning by doing
6. Respect for learners as subjects of their own learning
7. Cognitive, affective, and psychomotor aspects: ideas, feelings, and actions
8. Immediacy of the learning
9. Clear roles and role development
10. Teamwork: using small groups
11. Engagement of the learners in what they are learning
12. Accountability

ENHANCING YOUR TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS

• Involve the student in planning
• Begin with what the student knows
• Move from simple to complex
• Accommodate the student's preferred learning style ~Sort goals by learning domain
• Make material meaningful
• Allow immediate application of knowledge
• Plan for periodic rests
• Tell your students how they are progressing
• Reward desired learning with praises

IDEAS FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING

Before your class:

• Prepare a class schedule ahead of time and distribute it to the learners before the session
• Arrive ahead of time and arrange the room for learning

During your class:

• Try and be honest with the learners
• Stay on schedule
• Call learners by name
• Provide appropriate handouts
• Don't spend time telling information that can be given out ahead of time
• Try to summarize you ideas at periodic intervals - don't wait only until the end to
• summarize
• Schedule breaks for the learners
• Ask open-ended questions
• Start and finish on time

After your class:

• Follow-up with additional information
• be available for questions
• Check to see if learners are applying the ideas

USEFUL TIPS

1. Adult appreciate a class that is well planned, with requirements clearly specified. They like to know the learning objectives at the beginning of the class.
2. Many adults are concerned about time schedules. They like the class to begin and finish on time.
3. Adult respect an instructor who is knowledgeable about the course content and presents it  effectively. They can easily detect unprepared instructor. .
4. Many adults like to be involved in how the class in conducted. Involve them in planning, implementing, and evaluating learning activities.
5. Adult like to work in groups and socialize together.
6. Adults feel good if they are given a high level of respect for their current viewpoints and status.

TIPS TO PROMOTE INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOR

• Have faith that all learners can think
• Help learners see thinking as a goal
• Present challenging problem solving opportunities
• Create a safe, risk-taking environment
• Give learners time to learn
• Provide a rich responsive environment for learning
• Pay attention to learners' developmental readiness and sequence
• Be the kind of learner you would have them be

TRY THIS: THE ASSURE MODEL

The success of the endeavors of the nurse educators at teaching is measured not by how much content has been imparted, but by how much the person has learned. Specifically, patient education is a process of assisting people to learn health-related behaviors in order to incorporate then into everyday life with the purpose of achieving the goal of optimal health and independence in self-care.

A useful paradigm to assist nurses to organize and carry out the education process is the ASSURE Model by Rega. The acronym stands for Analyze learner, State objectives, Select instructional methods and tools, Use teaching materials, Require learner performance, and Evaluate/revise the teaching and learning process.

The ASSURE model is process that was modified to be used by teachers in the regular classroom This is one in which teachers and trainers can use to design and develop the most appropriate learning environment for their students. You can use this process in writing your lesson plans and in improving teaching and learning.

Analyze learners - before you can begin, you must know your target audience. You need to write down the following information about your students like general characteristics and competencies - prior knowledge, skills, and attitudes.

State objectives - you can now begin writing the objectives or learning outcomes of your lesson. Remember the ABCD's of writing objectives: audience, behavior to be demonstrated, conditions under which the behavior will be observed and the degree to which the learned skills are to be mastered.

Select instructional methods, media, and materials – then now you are ready to select the instructional method that you feel is most appropriate to meet the objectives for your students; the media that would be best suited to work with your instructional method, the objectives, and your students. Media could be text, still images, video, audio, and computer multimedia; materials that provide your students with the help they need in mastering the objectives. Materials would be specific software programs, music, videotapes, images, overhead projector, computer, printer, scanner, TV, laser disk player, VCR, and so on.

Utilize media and materials - Now it's time to do your lesson and use the media and materials that you have selected. You should always preview the materials before using them in a class.

Require learner participation -Students learn best when they are actively involved in the learning. So make sure that all your students have opportunities to participate in the learning activities. Allow time to listen to your students and allow them to become aware of the content.

Evaluate and revise - this is to assess what has been done in terms of the objectives or aims established. Intelligent teaching requires such evaluation. The materials used might not have been appropriate for your students or the material might not be very motivating. The instructional strategy might not have got students interesting in participation or the strategy might have been difficult for you to manage. The assessment you used might have shown that students didn't learn what you tested for. This might mean that you did not accurately test for the stated objectives, the method of assessment needs to be revised, or the lesson did not permit enough time for the students to master the objectives. Evaluation to be effective must improve the instruction and the conditions that affect the educative process.

Progress Check No. 5

1. What are the characteristics of a good test?
   
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2. Define:
1. Test reliability
   
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2. Content validity
   
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3. How do you know your teaching is effective?
   
   _________________________________________________________
   
   _________________________________________________________
   
   
4. Give the situations where the following types of test are more appropriate and effective:
   1. multiple-choice questions
      
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   2. true-or-false
      
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   3. matching-type
      
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   4. essay type
      
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      _________________________________________________________
      
      

REFERENCES

1. Bastable S.B. (1997). Nurse as Educators: Principles of Teaching and Learning. London: Jones and Barlett Publishers, Inc.
2. Billings D.M., Halstead J.A. (2005). Teaching in Nursing: A Guide for Faculty. St. Louis: Elsevier Inc.
3. Bloom, Benjamin S. et al. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Book I: Cognitive Domain. New York: Longman.
4. Brockett, R. G. and Hiemstra, R. (1991). Self-Direction in Adult Learning. Perspectives on Theory, Research and Practice, London: Routledge.
5. Brookfield, S. (1986) Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning. San Francisco: Jossey¬- Bass.
6. Cross, P. (198,1). Adults as Learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
7. Gagne, R. M., Briggs, L.J. (1979). Principles of Instructional Design. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Wilson.
8. Keating S.B. (2006). Curriculum Development and Evaluation in Nursing. New York: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. '
9. Knowles, M.S. (1980) The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy. New York: Cambridge Books.
10. Lindeman, E.C. (1989) The Meaning of Adult Education. Norman: University of Oklahoma
11. Merriam, S. B., and Caffarella, R. S. (1999) Learning in Adulthood, San Francisco: Jossey- Bass
12. Schaie, K. W., and Willis, S. L. (1986) Adult Development and Aging. (2nd ed.) Boston: Little, Brown,
13. Tennant, M. (1996) Psychology and Adult Learning, London: Routledge.
14. Tolentino, Rafael. (1995) Principles and Methods of Learning, Manila: Our Lady Fatima University Press.
15. Verner, C., and Davison, C. (1971) Physiological Factors in Adult Learning and Instruction. Tallahassee: Research Information Processing Center, Department of Adult Education, Florida State University.